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Chapter 6: International Comparisons of Education
This chapter offers a broad perspective on education across the nations of the world. It also provides an international context for examining the condition of education in the United States. Insights into the educational practices and outcomes of the United States are obtained by comparing them with those of other education systems. Most of the education systems represent countries; however, some of the tables in this chapter also include data for subnational entities with separate education systems, such as Hong Kong. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)carries out a variety of activities in order to provide statistical data for international comparisons of education.
This chapter presents data drawn from materials prepared by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Basic summary data on enrollments and enrollment ratios, teachers, educational attainment, and finances were synthesized from data published by OECD in the Online Education Database and the annual Education at a Glance report, as well as from data collected by UNESCO. Even though these tabulations are carefully prepared, international data users should be cautioned about the many problems of definition and reporting involved in the collection of data about the education systems of the world, which vary greatly in structure from country to country (see the UNESCO entry at the end of Appendix A: Guide to Sources).
Also presented in this chapter are data from two international assessments of student achievement that are carried out under the aegis of IEA and supported by NCES. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), formerly known as the Third International Mathematics and Science Study, assesses the mathematics and science knowledge and skills of fourth- and eighth-graders every 4 years. The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) measures the reading knowledge and skills of fourth-graders every 5 years.
This chapter includes additional information from the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), an OECD assessment supported by NCES. PISA provides performance scores of 15-year-olds in the areas of reading, mathematics, and science literacy; it also measures general, or cross-curricular, competencies such as learning strategies. While PISA focuses on OECD countries, data from some non-OECD education systems are also provided.
Further information on survey methodologies is in Appendix A: Guide to Sources and in the publications cited in the table source notes.
Population
Among the reporting OECD countries, Mexico had the largest percentage of its population made up of young people ages 5 to 14 (19 percent) in 2011, followed by Israel (18 percent) and Turkey (17 percent) (table 601.30). OECD countries with small percentages of people in this age group included the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, and Slovenia (all at 9 percent), and Austria, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, and Switzerland (all at 10 percent). In the United States, the proportion of 5- to 14-year-olds was 13 percent, which was higher than in most of the other OECD countries.
Enrollments
In 2012, about 1.5 billion students were enrolled in schools around the world (table 601.10). Of these students, 706 million were in elementary-level programs, 552 million were in secondary programs, and 196 million were in postsecondary programs.
From 2000 to 2012, enrollment changes varied from region to region. Changes in elementary enrollment ranged from increases of 56 percent in Africa and 35 percent in Oceania to decreases of 11 percent in Europe, 7 percent in Central and South America (including Latin America and the Caribbean), 3 percent in Northern America (including Bermuda, Canada, Greenland, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and the United States), and less than 1 percent in Asia (table F, table 601.10, and figure 27). Over the same period, secondary enrollment increased by 75 percent in Africa, 31 percent in Asia, 10 percent in Central and South America, 6 percent in Northern America, and 3 percent in Oceania but decreased by 20 percent in Europe. At the postsecondary level, enrollments increased in all major areas of the world from 2000 to 2012. Postsecondary enrollment rose by 155 percent in Asia, 103 percent in Central and South America, 92 percent in Africa, 58 percent in Oceania, 55 percent in Northern America, and 27 percent in Europe.
In 2012, the reporting OECD Country with the highest proportion of 18- to 21-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education was the Republic of Korea (68 percent), followed by Greece and the United States (both at 49 percent), Belgium (46 percent), and Ireland and Slovenia (both at 44 percent) (table 601.40). Also in 2012, the reporting OECD country with the highest proportion of 22- to 25-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education was Slovenia (39 percent), followed by Denmark (38 percent), and Finland and the Republic of Korea (both at 37 percent). The United States' proportion of enrolled 22- to 25-year-olds was 28 percent. Postsecondary enrollment varied among countries due partially to differences in how postsecondary education is defined and the age at which postsecondary education begins. For example, programs classified as postsecondary education in some countries may be classified as long-duration secondary education in other countries.
Achievement
Mathematics and Science at Grades 4 and 8
The 2011 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) assessed students' mathematics and science performance at grade 4 in 45 countries and at grade 8 in 38 countries. A number of subnational entities also participated in TIMSS as separate education systems. Examples of subnational participants include the cities of Hong Kong and Taipei, several U.S. states and Canadian provinces, Northern Ireland and England within the United Kingdom, and the Flemish community in Belgium. Results for individual U.S. states are based on public school students only, while U.S. national results are based on both public and private school students. TIMSS assessments are curriculum based and measure what students have actually learned against the subject matter that is expected to be taught by the end of grades 4 and 8, as described in the TIMSS mathematics and science frameworks, which guide assessment development. At both grades, TIMSS scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000, with the scale average set at 500.
In 2011, the average mathematics scores of U.S. fourth-graders (541) and eighth-graders (509) were higher than the TIMSS scale average of 500 (tables 602.20 and 602.30). The average U.S. fourth-grade mathematics score was higher than the average score in 37 of the 44 other countries participating at grade 4, lower than the average score in 3 countries, and not measurably different from the averages core in the remaining 4 countries (table 602.20). The 3 countries that outperformed the United States in fourth-grade mathematics were Singapore, the Republic of Korea, and Japan. At grade 8, the average U.S. mathematics score was higher than the average score in 27 of the 37 other participating countries in 2011, lower than the average score in 4 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 6 countries (table 602.30). The 4 countries that outperformed the United States in eighth-grade mathematics were the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Japan, and the Russian Federation.
Of the two U.S. states that participated in the 2011 TIMSS as separate education systems at grade 4, one state— North Carolina— had an average score for public schools that was higher than both the TIMSS scale average and the U.S. national average in mathematics (table 602.20). Public schools in the other state, Florida, had an average fourth-grade mathematics score that was higher than the TIMSS scale average but not measurably different from the U.S. national average. Of the nine U.S. states that participated separately at grade 8, four states— Massachusetts, Minnesota, North Carolina, and Indiana— had public school average scores that were higher than both the TIMSS scale average and the U.S. national average in mathematics (table 602.30). The public schools in three states— Colorado, Connecticut, and Florida— had average eighth-grade mathematics scores that were higher than the TIMSS scale average but not measurably different from the U.S. national average. The average eighth-grade score for public schools in California was not measurably different from the TIMSS scale average but was lower than the U.S. national average, while Alabama's public school average was lower than both the TIMSS scale average and the U.S. national average in mathematics.
The average science scores of both U.S. fourth-graders (544) and U.S. eighth-graders (525) were higher than the TIMSS scale average of 500 in 2011 (tables 602.20 and 602.30). The average U.S. fourth-grade science score was higher than the average score in 39of the 44 other countries participating at grade 4 and lower than the averages core in 5 countries (table 602.20). The 5 countries that outperformed the United States in fourth-grade science were the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Finland, Japan, and the Russian Federation. At grade 8, the average U.S. science score was higher than the average score in 28 of the 37 other participating countries in 2011, lower than the average score in 6 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 3 countries (table 602.30). The 6 countries that outperformed the United States in eighth-grade science were Singapore, the Republic of Korea, Japan, Finland, Slovenia, and the Russian Federation.
Public schools in both Florida and North Carolina, which were the two U.S. states participating in the2011 TIMSS at grade 4, had average fourth-grade science scores that were higher than the TIMSS scale average but not measurably different from the U.S. national average (table 602.20). Of the nine U.S. states that participated at grade 8, three states— Massachusetts, Minnesota, and Colorado— had public school average scores that were higher than both the TIMSS scale average and the U.S. national average in science (table 602.30). Public schools in four states— Indiana, Connecticut, North Carolina, and Florida— had average eighth-grade science scores that were higher than the TIMSS scale average but not measurably different from the U.S. national average. The average eighth-grade score for public schools in California was not measurably different from the TIMSS scale average but was lower than the U.S. national average, while Alabama's public school average was lower than both the TIMSS scale average and the U.S. national average in science.
Reading Literacy at Grade 4
The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) has conducted international assessments of fourth-grade reading literacy in 2001, 2006, and 2011. In 2011, PIRLS participants consisted of 40 countries as well as a number of subnational education systems. Examples of subnational participants include the cities of Hong Kong and Taipei, the public school system of the U.S. state of Florida, several Canadian provinces, Northern Ireland and England within the United Kingdom, and the Flemish community in Belgium. PIRLS scores are reported on a scale from 0 to 1,000, with the scale average set at 500.
On the 2011 PIRLS, U.S. fourth-graders had an average reading literacy score of 556 (table 602.10). The U.S. average score in 2011 was 14 points higher than in 2001 and 16 points higher than in 2006. In all 3 assessment years, the U.S. average score was higher than the PIRLS scale average.
In 2011, the average reading literacy score of fourth-graders in the United States was higher than the average score in 33 of the 39 other participating countries, lower than the average score in 3 countries, and not measurably different from the average in the remaining 3 countries. The 3 countries that outperformed the United States on the 2011 PIRLS were the Russian Federation, Finland, and Singapore. Public school students in Florida scored higher than both the PIRLS scale average and the U.S. national average.
In the United States, the2011 average reading literacy score for females (562) was higher than the average score for males (551). In 34 of the 39 other participating countries, the average score for females was also higher than the average score for males, while there was no measurable difference between females' and males' average scores in the remaining 5 countries.
Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy at Age 15
The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) assesses 15-year-old students' application of reading, mathematics, and science literacy to problems within a real-life context. In 2012, PISA assessed students in the 34 OECD countries as well as in a number of other education systems. Some subnational entities participated as separate education systems, including the U.S. states of Connecticut, Florida, and Massachusetts. Results for individual U.S. states are based on public school students only, while U.S. national results are based on both public and private school students. PISA scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000.
On the 2012 PISA assessment, U.S. 15-year-olds' average score in reading literacy was 498, which was not measurably different from the OECD average of 496 (table 602.50). The average reading literacy score in the United States was lower than the average score in 13 of the 33 other OECD countries, higher than the average score in 10 of the other OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average score in 10 of the OECD countries. The average reading literacy scores of public school students in Massachusetts (527) and Connecticut (521) were higher than both the U.S. average and the OECD average, while the average score in Florida (492) was not measurably different from either the U.S. average or the OECD average. In all participating education systems, females outperformed males in reading (table 602.40). The U.S. gender gap in reading (31 points) was smaller than the OECD average gap (38 points) and smaller than the gaps in 14 of the OECD countries.
In mathematics literacy, U.S.15-year-olds' average score of 481 on the 2012 PISA assessment was lower than the OECD average score of 494 (table 602.60). The average mathematics literacy score in the United States was lower than the average in 21 of the 33 other OECD countries, higher than the average in 5 OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average in 7 OECD countries. The average mathematics literacy score of public school students in Massachusetts (514) was higher than both the U.S. average and the OECD average, while the average score in Connecticut (506) was higher than the U.S. average but not measurably different from the OECD average. The average score in Florida (467) was lower than both the U.S. average and the OECD average. In 25 of the OECD countries, males outperformed females in mathematics literacy (table 602.40). In the United States, however, the average score of males (484) was not measurably different from that of females (479).
In science literacy, U.S.15-year-olds' average score of 497 was not measurably different from the OECD averages core of 501 (table 602.70). The average science literacy score in the United States was lower than the average in 15 OECD countries, higher than the average in 8 OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average in 10 OECD countries. The average science literacy scores of public school students in Massachusetts (527) and Connecticut (521) were higher than both the U.S. average and the OECD average. The average score in Florida (485) was not measurably different from the U.S. average but was lower than the OECD average.
Educational Attainment
In 2012, the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds who had completed high school varied among reporting OECD countries. (table 603.10). The OECD country reporting the highest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds who had completed high school was the Czech Republic (92 percent), followed by the Slovak Republic (also at 92 percent, when rounded to the nearest whole number). High school completers made up 89 to 90 percent of 25- to 64-year-olds in 4 OECD countries— Canada (89 percent), the United States (89 percent), Estonia (90 percent), and Poland (90 percent)— and 10 OECD countries reported percentages between 80 and 88 percent. The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of high school completers among 25- to 64-year-olds was Turkey (34 percent), followed by Mexico (37 percent) and Portugal (38 percent).
In 2012, the OECD country reporting the highest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with a bachelor's or higher degree was Norway (36 percent), followed by the United States and Israel (both at 33 percent) (table 603.20). An additional 16 OECD countries reported that 24 to 32 percent of their 25- to 64-year-olds had a bachelor's or higher degree. The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with a bachelor's or higher degree was Austria (13 percent), followed by Slovenia (about 15 percent) and then Turkey and Italy (both at 15 percent).
Among younger adults (25 to 34 years old) in OECD countries, the percentage with a bachelor's or higher degree also varied in 2012 (table 603.20 and figure 28). The OECD country reporting the highest percentage of younger adults with a bachelor's or higher degree was Norway (44 percent). More than 30 percent of younger adults had a bachelor's or higher degree in 17 additional countries, including the United States (34 percent). The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of younger adults with a bachelor's or higher degree in 2012 was Austria (18 percent).
Degrees
In 29 of the 32 reporting OECD countries, more than half of all bachelor's and higher degrees were awarded to women in 2012 (table 603.60). However, the proportion of degrees awarded to women varied by field. For example, 30 of the 32 countries reported that at least 70 percent of education degrees at the bachelor's or higher level were awarded to women. In contrast, women received less than 25 percent of the computer science degrees in 24 of the 31 countries reporting data on degrees awarded in this field.
The percentages of bachelor's degrees that were awarded in mathematics and science fields— including natural sciences, mathematics and computer science, and engineering— varied across the 31OECD countries that reported these data in 2011 (table 603.70). Only one of the reporting OECD countries awarded more than 30 percent of its bachelor's degrees in mathematics and science fields: the Republic of Korea (34 percent). Two countries awarded 15 percent or less of their bachelor's degrees in mathematics and science fields: the Netherlands (13 percent) and Norway (15 percent). In 2011, the United States awarded 16 percent of its bachelor's degrees in mathematics and science fields, a lower percentage than most other reporting countries.
The percentages of graduate degrees awarded in mathematics and science fields varied widely across the 31 OECD countries. that reported these data in 2011 (table 603.80). Five of the reporting OECD countries awarded more than 30 percent of their graduate degrees in mathematics and science fields: Japan (47 percent), Sweden (43 percent), Germany (35 percent), Austria (33 percent), and Greece (32 percent). Six OECD countries awarded less than 15 percent of their graduate degrees in mathematics and science fields: Chile (8 percent), Poland (11 percent), Mexico (12 percent), the United States (13 percent), and Hungary and the Netherlands (both at 14 percent).
Finances
In 2011, expenditures per full-time-equivalent (FTE) student at the combined elementary and secondary level of education were over $11,000 (in current U.S. dollars) in 5 of the 32 OECD countries that reported finance data for this level of education (table 605.10). Specifically, Luxembourg spent $19,600 per elementary/secondary student; Switzerland spent $14,600; Norway spent $13,200; Austria spent $12,500; and the United States spent $11, 800. At the higher education level, 7 of 31 reporting countries had expenditures of over $17,000 per FTE student in 2011: the United States ($26,000), Switzerland ($22,900), Denmark ($21,300), Sweden ($20,800), Norway ($18,800), Finland ($18,000), and the Netherlands ($17,500). These expenditures were adjusted to U.S. dollars using the purchasing-power-parity (PPP) index. This index is considered more stable and comparable than indexes using currency exchange rates.
A comparison of public direct expenditures on education as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) in reporting OECD countries shows that public investment in education in 2011 ranged from 3.6 percent in Japan to 7.5 percent in Denmark (table 605.20 and figure 29). Among reporting OECD countries, the average public direct expenditure on education in 2011 was 5.3 percent of GDP. In the United States, the public direct expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP was 4.7 percent.
