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Education in States and Nations: 1991
(ESN) Note on enrollment reference groups and graduation and entry reference ages: Indicators 8, 11, 23, 24, and 29
Enrollments
Enrollment ratios allow comparisons across states and countries by standardizing enrollment in education at a particular level to the size of the population in an age group typical for enrollment in that level. Indicator 8 presents an overall enrollment ratio for all levels of education. The ratio should not be interpreted as an enrollment rate (that is, as the percent of students in a particular age range who are enrolled at that level of education). This ratio compares the number of students enrolled in particular levels of education to the number of people in the age ranges that represent the usual ages of students at those levels of education. More importantly, the width of the age range best approximates the average duration of study at these levels of education.
For Indicator 8, the ratio is calculated by dividing the number of students
of any age enrolled in particular levels of education by the population in the
enrollment reference group (the population in the age range typical for
enrollment at those levels) and multiplying by 100:
students of any age enrolled in education level
enrollment ratio = ------------------------------------------------ X 100
population in enrollment reference group
This ratio thus represents the number of enrolled students per 100 people in the enrollment reference group. Under some conditions the enrollment ratio would be a fairly good estimate of the enrollment rate. For example, if in a particular country all students begin primary (elementary) education at nearly the same age, say 6, and if grade retention, repetition, and skipping is rare, then the ratio of students enrolled in grades 1 through 6 divided by the number of children between the ages of 6 and 11 would be a good estimate of the enrollment rate in elementary education. However, these conditions rarely hold for enrollment in higher education, and often do not hold for enrollment in upper secondary (high school) education.
To identify enrollment reference groups for each country, countries specified an age typical for beginning education at each level and the number of years typically required for completing education at each level. If this number of years is less than the actual average number of years required for completing education at that level, then, in a sense, the population reference group is too small, and the ratios too large. This is more likely to be a factor in education systems where retention and repetition are common, where a substantial number of students attend part-time, or where a substantial number of students enter the system again even after already earning a credential at that level.
Fortunately, because the sizes of different age cohorts within the same general age range are approximately equal, an enrollment ratio is relatively insensitive to the selection of the age typical for beginning students, but relatively sensitive to the selection of the age range or typical duration of education at that level. For example, dividing the number of students enrolled in upper secondary school in Norway by the population in the 16- to 18-year-old age range would yield almost the same result as dividing it by the population in the 17- to 19-year-old age range, an age range of 3 years in both cases. The reason is that the population of 16-year-olds and 19-year-olds are likely to be similar and so the result insensitive to whether one includes one age cohort or the other in the population reference group. However, dividing by the population of 16- to 19-year-olds, an age range of 4 instead of 3, would yield a substantially (approximately 25 percent) smaller ratio. So it is important that the age range in the population reference group be a close approximation of the actual average duration required to complete a particular level of education.
Table S2 lists countries' reference age groups - enrollment reference groups and university entry and graduation reference ages.
University completion
Similarly, the numbers of university degree recipients were standardized for comparison purposes as ratios of first-degree (i.e., undergraduate - e.g., bachelor's degree in the United States), university graduates per 100 people at the graduation reference age. Even though many students receive degrees at ages other than the graduation reference age, the ratio nevertheless allows useful comparisons across countries because it places the number of graduates in relation to the size of a typical cohort of students. Assuming that the sizes of different age cohorts within the same general age range are approximately equal, the ratio will not be significantly affected if large numbers of students receive degrees at ages other than the graduation reference age. This measure may even include some graduates receiving second undergraduate degrees.
Table S2: Enrollment reference groups-typical starting ages and years of completion for upper secondary and higher education-and university entry and graduation reference ages
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| |
| University
| Non-University |
Higher | (undergraduate and
Upper secondary | higher education |
education | graduate
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------
Typical Graduation | Typical |
Entry | Graduation
starting Typical reference | starting Typical |
reference | Typical refefence
Country age duration age | age duration|
age | duration age
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-------------------------------
Australia 16 2 17 18 3
18 7 21
Austria 14 5 18 19 4
19 7 23
Belgium 15 4 17 18 4
18 8 22
Canada 15 3 17 18 3
18 9 22
Czechoslovakia 15 4 17 18 2
18 7 22
Denmark 16 3 19 19 3
19 7 22
Finland 16 3 18 19 3
19 7 23
France 15 3 17 18 3
18 7 21
Germany 16 3 _ 18 3
18 10 25
Germany (West) 16 3 18 19 2
19 10 25
Hungary 15 4 18 19 4
19 5 23
Ireland 16 2 17 18 2
18 6 21
Italy 14 5 18 19 4
19 8 22
Japan 15 3 17 18 3
18 8 22
Luxembourg 15 4 18 19 3
19 7 23
Netherlands 16 3 18 18 4
18 8 22
New Zealand 15 4 17 18 3
18 7 21
Norway 16 3 18 19 2
19 6 22
Portugal 15 3 17 18 3
18 8 22
Spain 14 4 17 18 3
18 6 21/23
Sweden 16 3 18 19 3
19 7 23
Switzerland 16 4 19 20 3
20 7 26
Turkey 15 4 17 18 2
18 9 23
United Kingdom 14 5 17 18 3
18 6 21
United States 15 3 17 18 2
18 7 22
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_ Data not available for this category.
SOURCE: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Center for Educational Research and Innovation, Education at a Glance, 1993, Tables P11(B), P11(C), P11(D), P15, R5, and R6.
Entry to higher education
Similarly, the numbers of entering students were standardized for
comparison purposes as ratios of new entrants per 100 people at the entry
reference age. Even though many students enter higher education at ages
other than the entry reference age, the ratio nevertheless allows useful
comparisons across countries because it places the number of new entrants in
relation to the size of a typical cohort of students. Assuming that the sizes
of different age cohorts within the same general age range are approximately
equal, the ratio will not be significantly affected if large numbers of
students enter university at ages other than the entry reference age. It will,
however, be significantly affected if large numbers of students
re-enter university for second undergraduate degrees (entrants to
graduate programs are not included).
Levels of education
International comparisons of current public education expenditures
