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U.S. PIAAC Prison Study Results: 2014

Below are results for incarcerated adults in the U.S. in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments.

Approximately 1,300 prisoners participated in the U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), conducted from February through June 2014. Inmates in federal, state, and private prisons in the United States were assessed in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments (also called "PS-TRE") with the same assessments administered to a national sample of U.S. adults residing in households in 2012 and 2014. The assessments were made up of tasks that adults are likely to face in their daily lives.

How does the U.S. incarcerated population compare to the household population?

Compared to the household population, the incarcerated population is disproportionately male, Black, and Hispanic, relatively younger, and has lower levels of educational attainment. Overall, U.S. prisoners score lower than adults living in households on literacy and numeracy; but for Black and Hispanic prisoners and those with similar levels of education, average literacy scores are not measurably different.

Percentage distribution and average scores of U.S. adults on the PIAAC literacy and numeracy scales, by population group and selected characteristics: 2012 and 2014
Characteristic Percentage Literacy:
Average score		 Numeracy:
Average score
U.S.
Prison		 U.S.
Household		 U.S.
Prison		 U.S.
Household		 U.S.
Prison		 U.S.
Household
  Overall 100 100 249 270 220 255
Gender
Male 93 49 249 271 221 263
Female 7 51 249 269 219 248
Race/ethnicity
White 34 66 265 282 242 270
Black 37 12 240 245 206 216
Hispanic 22 14 239 235 210 222
Other 7 7 250 268 221 257
Age intervals1
16–24 13 17 248 273 218 254
25–34 35 18 254 281 227 267
35–44 24 18 252 275 224 261
45–54 19 20 240 267 209 253
55–65 8 18 244 262 214 252
66–74 1 9 ‡ 252 ‡ 236
Highest level of educational attainment
Graduate or professional degree 1 11 ‡ 308 ‡ 300
Bachelor's degree 1 17 ‡ 300 ‡ 289
Associate's degree 4 9 272 283 255 267
High school credential 64 50 259 262 233 246
Below high school 30 14 224 226 187 208

‡ Reporting standards not met.

* Significantly different (p < .05) from the comparison category, U.S. Household.

1 While the PIAAC target population was 16- to 74-year-olds, the prison sample did not include 16- or 17-year-olds.

NOTE: The percentages shown in the table are based on the PIAAC literacy scale. Black includes African American, and Hispanic includes Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Apparent differences between in-prison racial estimates may not be statistically significant. U.S. Household data collection occurred in 2012 and 2014, and U.S. Prison data collection occurred in 2014.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. National Supplement: Prison Study 2014, U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014.

Explore further: What percentage of incarcerated adults performed at each of the PIAAC proficiency levels?
Use the drop-down menu to access proficiency-level results for:

Overall

Overall, about 30 percent of U.S. incarcerated adults performed below Level 2 in literacy (6 percent below Level 1 and 23 percent at Level 1); about half performed below Level 2 in numeracy (18 percent below Level 1 and 34 percent at Level 1); and approximately 80 percent performed below Level 2 in problem solving in technology-rich environments (43 percent below Level 1 and 37 percent at Level 1).

Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC literacy scale: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC numeracy scale: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC problem solving in technology-rich environments scale: 2014

NOTE: The percentage distribution for problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) scale includes only those adults who took the PS-TRE assessment. Approximately 39 percent of the U.S. prison sample chose not to take the assessment on computer or were unable to do so and therefore did not take the PS-TRE assessment. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. National Supplement: Prison Study 2014.

Gender

In literacy, there were no measurable differences between incarcerated males and females in the percentages performing at any of the proficiency levels. In numeracy, a higher percentage of males than females performed at Level 4/5. In problem solving in technology-rich environments, a higher percentage of males than females performed below Level 1.

Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC literacy scale, by gender: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC numeracy scale, by gender: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC problem solving in technology-rich environments scale, by gender: 2014

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: Percentages of incarcerated adults in each reporting category appear in parentheses. The percentage distribution for problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) scale includes only those adults who took the PS-TRE assessment. Approximately 39 percent of the U.S. prison sample chose not to take the assessment on computer or were unable to do so and therefore did not take the PS-TRE assessment. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. National Supplement: Prison Study 2014.

Race/ethnicity

Results by race/ethnicity show that lower percentages of White incarcerated adults performed below Level 1 in literacy and numeracy compared to their Black and Hispanic peers, and in problem solving in technology-rich environments compared to their Black peers.

Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC literacy scale, by race/ethnicity: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC numeracy scale, by race/ethnicity: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC problem solving in technology-rich environments scale, by race/ethnicity: 2014

# Rounds to zero.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Sample size insufficient to permit a reliable estimate.

NOTE: Percentages of incarcerated adults in each reporting category appear in parentheses. The percentage distribution for problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) scale includes only those adults who took the PS-TRE assessment. Approximately 39 percent of the U.S. prison sample chose not to take the assessment on computer or were unable to do so and therefore did not take the PS-TRE assessment. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Black includes African American, and Hispanic includes Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. National Supplement: Prison Study 2014.

Age

In literacy, there were no measurable differences between any of the age categories in the percentages performing at any of the proficiency levels. In numeracy, a higher percentage of incarcerated adults age 45 to 54 performed below Level 1 compared to those age 25 to 34.

Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC literacy scale, by age intervals: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC numeracy scale, by age intervals: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC problem solving in technology-rich environments scale, by age intervals: 2014

# Rounds to zero.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Sample size insufficient to permit a reliable estimate.

NOTE: Percentages of incarcerated adults in each reporting category appear in parentheses. The percentage distribution for problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) scale includes only those adults who took the PS-TRE assessment. Approximately 39 percent of the U.S. prison sample chose not to take the assessment on computer or were unable to do so and therefore did not take the PS-TRE assessment. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. While the PIAAC target population was 16- to 74-year-olds, the prison sample did not include 16- or 17-year-olds.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. National Supplement: Prison Study 2014.

Born in the United States

The percentages of incarcerated adults born in the United States who performed below Level 1 in literacy and numeracy were lower than the percentages of incarcerated adults born outside the United States who performed at this level. While a higher percentage of incarcerated adults born in the United States performed at or above Level 3 in literacy compared to incarcerated adults born outside the United States, there were no measurable differences in the percentages performing at or above Level 3 between the two groups in numeracy.

Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC literacy scale, by whether they were born in the United States: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC numeracy scale, by whether they were born in the United States: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC problem solving in technology-rich environments scale, by whether they were born in the United States: 2014

‡ Reporting standards not met. Sample size insufficient to permit a reliable estimate.

NOTE: Percentages of incarcerated adults in each reporting category appear in parentheses. The percentage distribution for problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) scale includes only those adults who took the PS-TRE assessment. Approximately 39 percent of the U.S. prison sample chose not to take the assessment on computer or were unable to do so and therefore did not take the PS-TRE assessment. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. National Supplement: Prison Study 2014.

Highest level of educational attainment

In literacy and numeracy, higher percentages of incarcerated adults with associate's degrees performed at or above Level 3 compared to incarcerated adults with a high school credential or lower level of education.

Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC literacy scale, by highest level of educational attainment: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC numeracy scale, by highest level of educational attainment: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC problem solving in technology-rich environments scale, by highest level of educational attainment: 2014

# Rounds to zero.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Sample size insufficient to permit a reliable estimate.

NOTE: Percentages of incarcerated adults in each reporting category appear in parentheses. The percentage distribution for problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) scale includes only those adults who took the PS-TRE assessment. Approximately 39 percent of the U.S. prison sample chose not to take the assessment on computer or were unable to do so and therefore did not take the PS-TRE assessment. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. National Supplement: Prison Study 2014.

Recidivism

Percentages of first-time inmates and those who had been incarcerated before were not statistically different across all proficiency levels in all three PIAAC domains: literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments.

Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC literacy scale, by whether they had served time in prison prior to their current incarceration: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC numeracy scale, by whether they had served time in prison prior to their current incarceration: 2014
Percentage of incarcerated adults at each level of proficiency on the PIAAC problem solving in technology-rich environments scale, by whether they had served time in prison prior to their current incarceration: 2014

NOTE: Percentages of incarcerated adults in each reporting category appear in parentheses. The percentage distribution for problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) scale includes only those adults who took the PS-TRE assessment. Approximately 39 percent of the U.S. prison sample chose not to take the assessment on computer or were unable to do so and therefore did not take the PS-TRE assessment. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. National Supplement: Prison Study 2014.

See this complete dataset with the accompanying standard errors.