• Eighth-grade students of different abilities are typically divided into different classrooms in the U.S., and different schools in Germany. In Japan, no ability grouping is practiced.

• In the U.S. students in higher-level mathematics classes study different material than students in lower-level classes. In Germany and Japan, all students study the same material, although in Germany, lower-level classes study it less deeply and rigorously.

• Japanese eighth-graders are preparing for a high-stakes examination to enter high school at the end of ninth grade.

• U.S. teachers assign more homework and spend more class time discussing it than teachers in Germany and Japan. U.S. students report about the same amount of out-of-school math and science study as their Japanese and German counterparts.

• Heavy TV watching is as common among U.S. eighth graders as it is among their Japanese counterparts.

On the surface, the lives of eighth graders in most TIMSS countries are fairly similar. School and family occupy the biggest portions, with friends, TV, homework, clubs, and fun added around the side. Yet below the surface, the way in which societies choose to structure the schooling process gives rise to different opportunities and expectations for young people. The motivators, supports, and obstacles to study in each country are outgrowths of the choices provided by society and schools. In each country, the expectations which adult society sets for young people form a framework within which students organize their lives.

Some U.S. education policy makers have looked admiringly at other nations which use periodic gateway examinations to control student access to the next level of education. Such high-stakes tests are believed to encourage students to study hard. The German and Japanese systems are frequently cited as examples by the proponents of such practices. TIMSS allows us to compare the pathways through schooling in these two countries to those of our own, to understand how the expectations built into the system motivate students of different ability levels.

Japan

Japanese public schools offer a single curriculum for all students through the end of 9th grade. Students in elementary and junior high schools are virtually never tracked or grouped by academic ability. There is a widespread belief that, to be fair to all students, the nine years of compulsory education must offer the same nationally determined curriculum to all, regardless of individual differences in motivation or ability. Until the end of ninth grade, there are no gateway exams, and all students are promoted whether or not they understand the material. Students who are overly or insufficiently challenged by classroom assignments may receive extra help after school from a teacher, or their parents may pay to enroll them in a juku, which is a private after-school class. In Japan, a substantial amount of remedial and enrichment instruction is provided by the private sector.

In mathematics, all eighth-grade Japanese students receive a curriculum heavily focused on algebra and geometry. Review of arithmetic is not included in the official curriculum goals and textbooks. TIMSS observers noted that there are differences in students' ability to keep up with the curriculum within each classroom, and also between schools where students come from families with predominantly high or low economic backgrounds. However, the Japanese system is designed such that teachers throughout the country strive to meet similar standards for presentation of content, while allowing almost unlimited variation in the standards of performance attained by students.

At the end of ninth grade, virtually all Japanese students continue on to high school. Before they do, however, all must take the high school entrance exam. This examination covers the five core subjects, including mathematics and science. Scores on the examination serve as a gateway which divides students into high, medium, and low-level high schools on the basis of each student's scores on the exam and prior academic performance. The best of the graduating ninth-graders are accepted at the best academic high schools in each city, which prepare students for application to the best universities. The slowest students are accepted only by the lesser-ranked commercial or vocational high schools, which prepare graduates to enter the labor force. Students and parents clearly understand the consequence of this examination at the end of ninth grade for future career and life choices. Japanese students say that the examination motivates them to study harder during their junior high school years. For the majority of Japanese students, this is the only high-stakes exam they will experience.

Once Japanese students enter high school, they are again promoted each year, until they graduate. Most students then enter the labor force or vocational training. Approximately one third of the high school graduates decide to apply to a university or two-year college, most of which require an entrance examination. Competition on the entrance examinations for prestigious universities is intense, although some lower-ranked colleges will accept most high-school graduates who apply.

Germany

Various exceptions and experiments notwithstanding, the German school system basically sorts students into one of three types of schools at the end of the fourth grade of elementary school. This is accomplished through a system of gateway examinations and ability grouping which differs considerably from the Japanese. Most German students attend one of three types of schools:

• Gymnasium, which provides a demanding, academic curriculum through grade 13 and leads to the Abitur exit examination and university study.

• Realschule which provides a moderately-paced curriculum ending at grade 10 and leads to a school-leaving certificate and vocational training or further study at a Gymnasium.

• Hauptschule, which provides practically-oriented instruction ending at grade 9 and leads to a school leaving certificate and vocational training or employment. Immigrant and non-German students are over-represented in the Hauptschule.

The gateway into one of these schools is controlled by teacher recommendations at the end of fourth grade. Parents can, and frequently do, override teacher recommendations if they believe that their child deserves to be placed in a higher track. If the student is unable to keep up with his classmates, however, he or she will be retained in grade and after repeated failure will be returned to the next lower level of schooling. Most German parents and teachers are relatively comfortable with the fairness of this system, because they believe that it allows each child an education best suited to his or her abilities, interests and future career. However, there is a substantial current of opinion within Germany which would prefer to delay the sorting of students into different school types until later in the student's life, and to make it easier for students to change upward to a higher school type. Most recent policy reforms have made small changes to modify the system in this direction.

Classes in grades 5-9 basically cover the same content in all three types of German schools, although there is considerable difference in the depth and rigor of instruction between the three school types. Typically, Gymnasium students receive a theoretical approach, and Hauptschule students receive a practical approach to the same content. In eighth-grade mathematics, the German curriculum focuses mostly on Geometry and Algebra for all three types of schools, with some mixture of other topics.

Within most schools, eighth graders all follow the same course of study in math and science, regardless of their ability level. Seventy-five percent of the schools reported that they provide only one course of study in mathematics, and 90 percent provide only one course in science. Generally speaking, the German system separates students into different ability levels primarily between, rather than within, schools.

In Germany, students who have not learned the material may be required to repeat the grade, or may be moved to a less demanding school type. Principals reported that 5 percent of students were required to repeat grade eight. Most students finishing the Hauptschule at the end of grade 9, or Realschule at the end of grade 10 receive a diploma, and most states do not require an exit exam. About 10 percent of the students receive only a school-leaving certificate instead of a diploma. Approximately one-third of German students are enrolled in a Gymnasium, and about a quarter of these end their studies before taking the Abitur examination at the end of 13th grade. Very few students who sit for the Abitur fail it, although those with a lower score may not be able to enter their chosen university or field of study.

United States

It is more difficult to generalize about the United States, because practices differ among the thousands of school districts in the country. Generally speaking, however, within-class grouping or individuation of instruction is fairly common in elementary schools in the subjects of reading and mathematics. In middle schools and high schools, students are frequently grouped by ability into different mathematics classes. In the U.S., 80 percent of principals of eighth graders reported that they provided different ability-based classes in mathematics, but only 17 percent reported this in science. Course content and textbooks usually differ between the higher and lower-level classes. In the eighth grade, lower-level classes typically focus on a review of arithmetic and other basic skills with a small amount of algebra. Higher-level classes focus more heavily on algebra, with a small amount of geometry.

In the U.S., educational expectations and teaching standards can also differ substantially between communities, based on a neighborhood's economic status and parental expectations for their children's futures. Minority students are over-represented in lower-level classes and in schools in poorer areas.

There are various procedures for dealing with students who teachers judge have not learned the course material. They may be promoted anyway, retained in grade, moved to a lower-tracked class, or given remedial assistance. Principals reported that 4 percent of the students in their schools were required to repeat grade eight.

Generally speaking, the U.S. system does not have high-stakes gateway examinations which regulate entrance to further schooling before the end of twelfth grade. Seventeen states currently have an exit examination as a requirement for high-school graduation. In most cases, this is a minimum-competency test. Students may take the test several times if necessary, and few students repeatedly fail. Scores on college entrance examinations such as the SAT and ACT are given considerable weight by most selective universities, although non-selective schools may not require them at all.

This section has examined the learning expectations embedded in the school systems in the three countries. Japan is the only one of the three countries which requires a high-stakes entrance examination for all students. Mathematics and science are included on this examination, and Japanese eighth-graders are therefore likely to be studying these subjects harder than usual in preparation. Methods of sorting students by ability into schools and classes differ among the three countries, but both Germany and Japan teach algebra and geometry to all of their eighth-grade students, although the level of rigor may differ by track. In contrast, in the U.S. a heavy focus on algebra is usually reserved for students in the higher tracks, and few U.S. eighth-graders in any track study much geometry.

In all three countries, the standards of performance for students at each grade level are set in such a way that almost all students are passed from one grade to the next, and all who complete secondary education can obtain some type of secondary school diploma, regardless of their level of academic ability.



HOW DO STUDENTS SPEND THEIR TIME DURING SCHOOL?

United States

U.S. students attend school approximately 180 days per year, five days per week. Each day, school usually runs from about 8:00 in the morning until mid-afternoon, with a lunch break and five to seven-minute breaks between classes. Schools vary in how they organize students. Middle schools commonly include either grades 7-9, or 6-8, although variations exist. In some schools, the student body is subdivided into "houses" or "blocks" which include several classes of students and a single group of teachers, to strengthen continuity in student-teacher and student-student relationships. In other schools, students change teachers and classmates at the end of each period.

Most U.S. schools offer a variety of teacher-led after-school activities, including sports, music, art, theater, and academic clubs. The range of after-school activities varies by school and often reflects the district's and school's resources and socioeconomic status. Participation in clubs is voluntary, and students can participate in more than one activity, as some are seasonal or do not meet every day. Ten percent of U.S. students said that they participate in some type of math or science club each week.

Germany

German students attend school approximately 188 days per year. School usually starts around 7:45 in the morning, and ends around 1:15, with 10 to 25 minute breaks between classes. There is no lunch period, and most students return home for lunch. Gymnasium usually include students from grades 5-13, Realschule grades 5-10, and Hauptschule grades 5-9. Eighth-grade students remain together throughout the day, with teachers changing classrooms. Classes are usually kept together for several years and develop a strong sense of unity.

Most German schools offer few extracurricular activities. Schools visited by TIMSS observers offered mostly sports, arts, and student government. Student participation was low, and some clubs rarely met. Six percent of German students said that they participate in a math or science club each week. Over half of all German students under the age of 15 are involved in organized sports, but these are sponsored by a national organization's local sports clubs rather than the school.

Japan

Japanese schools are in session 220 days per year, five days per week, and two Saturday mornings per month. School usually starts at 8:00 in the morning and ends in the middle of the afternoon, with a lunch break, 5 to 15 minute breaks between various periods, and a homeroom meeting at the beginning and end of each day. The number of classes per day is frequently reduced for special seasonal events, school-wide meetings, and other activities. Junior high schools include grades 7-9. Students in a given class remain together throughout the day, and a different teacher for each subject comes to the students' classroom.

Extracurricular or "club" activities are a very important part of Japanese eighth-graders' lives, and well over half of all students participate. Clubs meet daily throughout the year from the time that classes are over until about 5:00 or 6:00. Four percent of Japanese students reported participating in a math or science club.

In contrast to their German and U.S. counterparts, Japanese junior-high school students are required to wear uniforms to school, and must follow a strict dress code. Regular uniform inspections chastise such deviations as non-regulation belts, shoes, hairstyles, jewelry, and non-regulation book bags. The students themselves play a major role in the enforcement of school rules and discipline. Between students, there is a complicated senior-junior system of deference and behavior training. Younger students speak to students in upper grades using the respectful term sempai (upper-class man/woman). Particularly within the clubs, upper-class students are in charge of overseeing the younger students.

HOW MUCH STUDY DO STUDENTS DO AFTER SCHOOL?

Study at home is not the same as homework. Ideally, students would be self-motivated to study mathematics and science more than the minimum required by homework assignments. The degree to which this actually happens depends on the individual student, and the degree to which the culture encourages or requires eighth-graders to take responsibility for their own learning.

Interviews with students about their daily lives found that, in all three countries, most students tended to put in extra non-assigned study before examinations and relax after they were finished. In Germany and the U.S., the only tests with some consequences for students' academic lives were periodic teacher-prepared in-class examinations. There were broad similarities across countries in students' strategies of study for these examinations. High-achieving students described doing extra hours of non-assigned review and preparation, while this was much less common among low achievers. In Japan, consciousness about the examinations at the end of ninth grade caused all eighth graders to be mindful of the need for extra personal study and preparation, although high achievers were more likely to translate this into substantial home study.

Most Americans believe that homework is an important part of the learning process. Some have recommended assignment of more homework as a means of improving mathematics achievement. It is frequently assumed that teachers in high-achieving countries assign more homework than do U.S. teachers.

However, TIMSS found that Japanese teachers actually assigned less homework than U.S. and German teachers. The teacher questionnaire results and videotapes of classroom practices both agree on this finding. Figure 14 shows that 86 percent of U.S. mathematics and 75 percent of German teachers assigned homework 3 to 5 times per week, in comparison to 21 percent of Japanese teachers. When asked about the amount of homework they assign, U.S. and German math teachers' most common response was about thirty minutes or less, three or more times per week. Japanese teachers typically assigned the same amount, but once or twice per week.

U.S. and German teachers not only assign more homework than Japanese, but they also spent more class time talking about or doing it. Time spent on assigning, working on, or sharing homework occupied 11 percent of U.S. and 8 percent of German lessons, in comparison to 2 percent of Japanese lessons. Furthermore, most U.S. teachers reported that they counted homework toward student grades, whereas this practice was not common in Germany and Japan. It was only in the U.S. that some teachers allocated class time for students to begin their homework in class.

The picture changes, however, when students themselves were asked how much time they spend studying math and science. On average, Japanese, German, and U.S. students reported that they spent about the same amount of time each day - between 30 minutes and an hour - studying mathematics outside of school, and about the same amount studying science. These questionnaire findings are in line with what interviewers found when they spoke with eighth graders in each country about their study habits.

Between 30 minutes and an hour of after-school study per night is an average in each country. Of course there were wide differences between students everywhere in how willing they were to complete assignments or go beyond them in extra personal study. Some German, Japanese, and U.S. teachers noted that low-achieving students, particularly those from troubled family backgrounds were less likely to complete assignments, either because they lacked the motivation, or did not have a family environment which was conducive to home study. In contrast, some high-achieving students in each country engaged in extra study beyond what was assigned.

If Japanese teachers assigned less homework than German and U.S. teachers, but Japanese students reported that they studied about as much as their counterparts in these countries, how were typical Japanese students motivated and supported in this extra study? Researchers who observed and interviewed in Japanese schools and homes reported that parents, teachers, and friends encouraged students to study hard during their eighth and ninth grade years in preparation for the high school entrance examinations. Students are believed to have considerable personal responsibility for this process. Some popular teen magazines even run articles on how to devise a personal study and review plan. Japanese students described a combination of peer support and competition that encouraged them to study harder during these years. For students who enter a commercial or vocational high school, however, extra study tends to fall off again after entrance to high school.

Another important source of outside assistance for Japanese students is the juku, which are private after-school classes offered in a variety of subjects to help slower students catch up, or faster students study in more depth to prepare for entrance examinations. Parents must pay to send their children to these private classes, which are run by companies or neighborhood tutors. Researchers reported that some mothers take an extra job to provide the tuition. Although the purpose of juku is academic, students enjoy attending them, because they are able to spend time with their friends walking or riding subway trains to and from the classes. Sixty-four percent of Japanese eighth graders reported attending weekly extra lessons in math, and 41 percent in science. Most students attend juku one or two hours per week. Attendance drops off substantially once high school entrance examinations are completed. Other types of non-academic after-school classes, such as music or martial arts, were also popular among Japanese students.

Japanese experts report that instruction in mathematics juku focuses more on review and practice of basic skills than is typical of Japanese classrooms. This assists slower students who need review of prior material, and provides all students extra practice with concepts learned but not drilled upon in class. Although more systematic study of juku instruction is needed, the hypothesis might be entertained that Japanese students benefit from the different but complementary nature of juku and classroom instruction.



WHAT DO STUDENTS THINK ABOUT MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE?

At least half the students in Germany, Japan, and the U.S. reported that they like math and science. In the U.S., boys and girls were equally positive, but German and Japanese girls were less positive than boys in those countries.

How much students like math and science is a different question. Students in all three countries were more inclined to agree that that it was important to have time to have fun than that to do well in mathematics and science. More students in the U.S. also agreed that it was important to do well in sports than to do well in math and science. In Germany and Japan, however, fewer students considered it important to do well in sports than in mathematics.

Japanese policy makers are currently discussing an emerging social phenomenon they term risu kirai, or "dislike of mathematics and science." Although much discussed among Japanese experts, it is not clear how widespread this phenomenon is in Japan. About 10 percent of Japanese students reported that they disliked mathematics "a lot," which was comparable to the number of U.S. students who reported strongly disliking the subject. Interviews with Japanese students who disliked the subject suggest that they disliked it because they saw it as difficult and uninteresting. Japanese teachers speculated that many of these students may have fallen behind in earlier grades and never caught up. The teachers thought that the demanding pace of the curriculum and the need to keep instruction focused on the material which will be covered on the high school entrance examination caused students to fall behind.

Most Japanese students experience mathematics and science as difficult. Eighty-seven percent disagreed with the statement "math is an easy subject," and 85 percent disagreed with a similar statement in science. About half of U.S. students on the other hand, reported that math and science are easy. Given the findings reported in Chapter 3 that the U.S. mathematics curriculum focuses on easier topics, and that classroom activities are based mostly on routine procedures rather than conceptual thinking, the hypothesis might be entertained that U.S. students' classroom experiences, at least in mathematics, lead them to believe that these subjects are easy.



WHAT DO STUDENTS DO AFTER SCHOOL BESIDES STUDY?

What other choices and opportunities do societies offer their eighth-graders besides focus on school and study? The way in which societies structure the choices available to young people shows something about the priority assigned to schooling and the society's investment in education.

Figure 15 shows that eighth-graders in all three countries were more likely to spend extended periods after school watching television or videos, playing with friends, or engaging in sports than taking part in more academically-related activities.

Students who watched a lot of television each day after school were fairly common in all three countries, especially the U.S. and Japan. After-school sports were more popular in the U.S than in Germany or Japan. Almost one third of U.S. eighth-graders reported spending three hours per day engaged in sports activities. In Germany, friends were more popular than television. Two-thirds of German students spent at least three hours per day playing with friends, possibly because German schools finish before lunch, and students have more time to spend with their friends in the afternoon. Very few students in any of the three countries spent extended periods of time reading books for fun or studying school subjects.

The priorities that nations assign to schooling are evident in the opportunities provided for students outside of school. Japan tries to encourage eighth-graders to focus primarily on school, family, and study. In contrast to U.S. and German schools, Japanese schools set and enforce policies for behavior off school grounds. Examples include policies regarding curfews; clothing to be worn in public; use of bicycle helmets: and prohibitions against entering game arcades, dating, employment, smoking, and alcohol. In some towns, teachers and parents check shopping malls, parks, and other areas where students are likely to congregate to monitor student compliance with the rules. These policies may contribute to Japanese students' reports that they spent less time with their friends than German and U.S. teenagers.

In the U.S. and Germany, working at a paid job was not uncommon even for eighth graders. About a quarter of all students in these countries reported that they worked at a paid job before or after school at least an hour per week. In Japan, this percentage was 4 percent.

In summary, eighth-graders' lives in Germany, Japan, and the U.S. share broad similarities in their focus on school, friends, TV, and sports. However, the way in which each society has designed its schooling process, and the expectations that it sets for students provide different motivators, supports, and distractions from study. Considering the choices that other nations have made in this regard may help us to better understand our own.