• Highlights

Comparisons drawn in the text of this report have been tested for statistical significance at the .05 level to ensure that the differences are larger than those that might be expected due to sampling variation. Most comparisons are tested with t statistics, although analysis of variance has been used to test for linear trends. Because comparisons drawn in the report are delimited and focused through their reliance on findings from prior studies in the data series and the wider research literature, and because a criterion of substantive significance has been imposed as well (see below), the t tests have not been adjusted for multiple comparisons. Full details of statistical tests used can be found in appendix A in the full report. As noted above, all findings have also been subjected to a test of substantive significance. For comparisons of means, findings must show a difference of at least a fifth of a standard deviation (that is, an effect size of .20) to be reported. Further information on effect sizes can also be found in appendix A in the full report. For comparisons of proportions, differences noted in the text are at least 5 percentage points.^* Exceptions arise with comparisons that directly investigate stated research questions and hypotheses or when not performing basic comparisons would be seen as a critical omission. The text notes when comparisons do not meet statistical and/or substantive significance.

Sociodemographic and educational characteristics of the cohort

Various background characteristics and differences are associated with the educational experiences, achievement, and expectations of students as they progress through high school. The following descriptive characteristics of the sophomore class of 2002 are noted:

• The majority of sophomores are Whites (60 percent). Hispanics comprise 16 percent and Blacks 14 percent of the sophomore cohort, Asian and multiracial sophomores each comprise 4 percent, and American Indians comprise 1 percent of the sophomore cohort (figure 1).
• While 16 percent of White sophomores come from the lowest socioeconomic status (SES) quartile group, half of Hispanics and 35 percent of Blacks come from this group.
• Some 57 percent of sophomores live in a family with both their biological parents. Others live in a single-parent household (22 percent), or with their mother or father and a guardian (17 percent). Still others (4 percent) live in a variety of other arrangements.
• Approximately 6 out of 10 sophomores (59 percent) have a mother who continued her education beyond high school. Fifty-six percent have a father who continued his education beyond high school.
• The 2002 sophomore cohort has high ambitions: 72 percent expect to complete a bachelor's degree or higher; indeed, about one-third (36 percent) expect to complete a graduate or professional degree. However, only about one-half (51 percent) indicate being enrolled in a college preparatory program.
• There are differences by racial/ethnic group in the likelihood that English is a sophomore's native language. English is the native language of 94 percent of Black and 97 percent of White sophomores. It is the native language of 37 percent of Asian and 48 percent of Hispanic sophomores.
• The overwhelming majority of sophomores (92 percent) attend public schools (4 percent attend Catholic schools and 3 percent attend other private schools) (figure 2).
• Half of sophomores attend suburban schools; 30 percent attend urban schools; and 20 percent attend rural schools. However, nearly half (49 percent) of Black students attend urban schools, compared to 21 percent of Whites.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002). (Originally published as figure 2 on p. 9 of the complete report from which this article is excerpted.)

Figure 2. Percentage of high school sophomores attending various types of schools: 2002


NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002). (Originally published as figure 9 on p. 16 of the complete report from which this article is excerpted.)

Sophomores' school experiences

Sophomores reported their perceptions of their school and teachers, school safety, and school rules, as well as the importance they accorded good grades and their reasons for going to school.

Overall, students had a positive view of their school and teachers (e.g., 81 percent indicated that the quality of teaching was good, and nearly three-quarters [74 percent] reported that their teachers were interested in the students and that students and teachers got along well). The majority (65 percent) reported that they liked school somewhat, and 24 percent liked school a great deal.

Nevertheless, 12 percent of sophomores reported not feeling safe in school (13 percent in public schools, 3 percent in Catholic schools, and 4 percent in other private schools). Nearly two-thirds (66 percent) had experienced some manifestation of school crime or violence during the first term of the school year. One out of four was offered drugs for sale, and 24 percent reported that someone had threatened to hurt them. Students who felt safe at school were more likely to report that rules were clear, fair, and consistently enforced.

Most sophomores (87 percent) indicated that getting good grades was important or very important to them, and 57 percent reported that engagement with interesting and challenging school subjects was one of their motivations for attending school.

However, there were some notable differences between subgroups (including, among others, racial/ethnic groups, males versus females, and sophomores in different school sectors) in their responses. Racial/ethnic differences, particularly between Blacks and Hispanics, on the one hand, and Whites, on the other, form a complex pattern. For example:

• Black and Hispanic sophomores were more likely than White sophomores to feel unsafe at school.
• Black sophomores were less likely than White sophomores to report positive impressions about their school and teachers (when asked about school spirit, teaching quality, and teacher-student relationships).
• Blacks (62 percent) and Hispanics (53 percent) were more likely than Whites (47 percent) to affirm getting good grades as something very important to them.
• Blacks and Hispanics more often reported that they went to school because their school subjects were interesting and challenging than did Whites (63 percent for Blacks and 65 percent for Hispanics versus 52 percent for Whites) and that they got satisfaction from their classwork (72 percent for Blacks and 70 percent for Hispanics versus 55 percent for Whites).
• Black and Hispanic sophomores were more likely than their White peers to indicate that they liked school a great deal (29 percent and 30 percent versus 21 percent).
• Blacks and Hispanics were more likely than Whites to report that their teachers expected them to succeed in school (67 percent for Blacks, 64 percent for Hispanics, and 58 percent for Whites).

• Females were more likely than males to report liking school a great deal (26 percent versus 21 percent).
• Males were more likely than females to be the victim of school crimes (73 percent versus 59 percent), and they were also more likely to report involvement in physical fights (21 percent for males versus 8 percent for females) and to have had someone offer to sell them drugs (31 percent versus 19 percent).
• Females more often reported that getting good grades was very important to them (58 percent for females versus 44 percent for males).
• Females were more likely to report that their school subjects were interesting and challenging (59 percent versus 54 percent), and they were more likely to report getting a feeling of satisfaction from doing their classwork (67 percent versus 55 percent).
• Females were also more likely to report that their teachers expected them to succeed (63 percent for females versus 58 percent for males).

• Some 80 percent of public school sophomores reported good quality teaching in their schools, compared to 91 percent of Catholic and 90 percent of other private school sophomores.
• When asked whether teachers were interested in students, 73 percent of public school sophomores agreed, compared to 86 percent of Catholic and 88 percent of other private school sophomores.
• Some 73 percent of public school sophomores indicated that students and teachers got along well with each other in their schools, compared to 86 percent of Catholic and 87 percent of other private school sophomores.

• Some 89 percent of sophomores in other private schools, and 87 percent of sophomores in Catholic schools, reported that everyone knew what the school rules were. This compared to 82 percent in public schools. In addition, 79 percent of Catholic school sophomores maintained that the rules were strictly enforced, compared to 66 percent of public school students.
• Some 65 percent of other private school sophomores believed their school rules were fair, compared to 54 percent of public school students.

Sophomores in private schools were also more likely than public school students to cite sports or other extracurricular participation as a reason for going to school (67 percent of Catholic, 57 percent of other private, and 48 percent of public school students listed playing on a team or belonging to a club as one of their motivations for going to school). This is consistent with the higher rates of extracurricular, particularly sports, participation reported for private school students.

Sophomores' extracurricular and sports participation

Sophomores were asked if they participated in any of various extracurricular activities. These school-sponsored activities were academic clubs, hobby clubs, musical activities (band, orchestra, choir, or chorus), cheerleading, sports, and vocational education clubs.

Over half (55 percent) of all sophomores participated in sports, including play at the intramural level. Participation in other activities was relatively lower: 8 percent for academic clubs, 13 percent for cheerleading, 10 percent for hobby clubs, 22 percent for musical activities, and 8 percent for vocational education clubs. Some subgroup differences are notable:

• Sports participation varied by school type: 73 percent of Catholic and 74 percent of other private school sophomores participated in sports, compared to 53 percent of public school sophomores.
• Males played sports at a higher rate than females (61 percent versus 49 percent), but females participated in other extracurricular activities at a higher rate than males.
• Participation in most extracurricular activities increased with ascending SES. For example, 6 percent of low-SES-quartile sophomores participated in academic clubs, compared to 13 percent from the high-SES quartile; 45 percent of low-SES-quartile sophomores were athletes, compared to 64 percent of high-SES sophomores; and 16 percent of low-SES sophomores took part in musical activities, compared to 27 percent of high-SES sophomores. The opposite was true for vocational clubs.

• expect to earn a 4-year degree or higher (87 percent versus 72 percent for the 10th-grade norm);
• expect to go directly to college (83 percent compared to 72 percent for all sophomores);
• perform in the highest test quartile (37 percent versus 25 percent for the norm);
• report to have "never cut class" (74 percent versus 68 percent); and
• rate good grades as very important (59 percent versus 51 percent for sophomores as a whole).

Sophomores' time use

• school-sponsored extracurricular activities (5 hours);
• outside reading (not assigned for class) (3 hours);
• homework (outside of school) (6 hours); and
• working for pay (15 hours).

• Asians spent more time on homework outside school (8 hours per week) than Blacks, Whites, or Hispanics (5-6 hours).
• Catholic and other private school students spent more time on out-of-school homework (8 hours) than public school students (6 hours).
• The average number of hours worked per week was negatively related to SES.

Sophomores' tested achievement in reading and mathematics

Reading and mathematics achievement were reported in terms of various levels of skill and content mastery, or proficiency. Overall results, and the content and processes embodied by each proficiency level, are summarized below:

Overall, in reading:

• 89 percent of sophomores had mastered the skills of simple reading comprehension (proficiency level 1);
• 46 percent were able to make relatively simple inferences beyond the author's main thought (proficiency level 2); and
• 8 percent could make complex inferences (proficiency level 3).

• 92 percent of sophomores were able to perform simple arithmetical operations on whole numbers (level 1);
• 67 percent could perform simple operations with decimals, fractions, powers, and roots (level 2);
• 46 percent could perform simple problem solving that involved the understanding of low-level mathematical concepts (level 3);
• 20 percent could understand intermediate-level mathematical concepts and/or demonstrate ability to formulate multistep solutions to word problems (level 4); and
• 1 percent could solve complex multistep word problems and had mastered material found in advanced mathematics courses (level 5).

• Differences in proficiency were seen by SES; higher SES was associated with higher proficiency scores. For example, in mathematics, 8 percent of sophomores in the lowest quartile were proficient at understanding intermediate-level mathematical concepts, while 18 percent of those in the middle quartiles and 39 percent of those in the highest SES quartile were proficient. Some 18 percent of sophomores in the highest SES quartile were proficient at the highest reading level (ability to make complex inferences), compared to 3 percent in the lowest SES quartile.
• Differences in proficiency were observed by racial/ethnic subgroup. For example, in mathematics, Asians were more likely than Blacks to be proficient in the understanding of intermediate-level mathematical concepts (32 percent compared to 5 percent). Some 27 percent of White sophomores had reached this level, compared to 9 percent of Hispanics.
• In reading, Whites and Asians were more likely to be proficient than were Blacks or Hispanics. Some 56 percent of Whites and 47 percent of Asians were proficient at the level of simple inference, compared to 25 percent of Blacks and 28 percent of Hispanics. At the highest reading level (complex inference), 9 percent of Asian and 11 percent of White 10th-graders were proficient, compared to 2 percent of Blacks and 3 percent of Hispanics.
• Differences by racial/ethnic group persist, even when SES is taken into account. Whites were more likely to be proficient at various reading and mathematics levels than their Black or Hispanic peers, within each of the three SES groupings. For example, at the level of simple mathematical problem solving, within the lowest SES group, 12 percent of Blacks, 18 percent of Hispanics, and 36 percent of Whites were proficient. For the middle SES quartiles, the proportions proficient at this level were 19 percent of Blacks, 30 percent of Hispanics, and 54 percent of Whites. In the highest SES quartile, 42 percent of Blacks, 47 percent of Hispanics, and 76 percent of Whites were proficient in simple problem solving. The same pattern—persistence of racial/ethnic differences within each SES category, with Whites showing higher achievement than Blacks or Hispanics—was also discernible in reading.

• For example, 32 percent of 10th-graders who expected to obtain a graduate or professional degree had mastered intermediate mathematical concepts. In contrast, 7 percent of those who expected to complete some college but less than a 4-year degree had done so. At the same time, racial differences were apparent even within expectation levels.
• For example, among sophomores who expected to complete at least a 4-year degree, at reading level 2 (simple inference), 31 percent of Blacks, 35 percent of Hispanics, and 65 percent of Whites were proficient. Among sophomores who expected to complete at least a 4-year degree, at level 4 of mathematics (intermediate concepts), 6 percent of Blacks and 12 percent of Hispanics, contrasted to 33 percent of Whites, were proficient.

In addition to subgroup differences by individual sociodemographic characteristics, proficiency in both reading and mathematics was examined across a number of school characteristics, including school sector. Students from Catholic and other private schools were more likely to be proficient than were students from public schools:

• In mathematics at the level of understanding intermediate concepts, 19 percent of public school sophomores were proficient, compared to 32 percent of Catholic and 35 percent of other private school sophomores.
• In reading, students in Catholic and other private schools were more likely to be proficient than students in public schools. For example, 68 percent of Catholic and 65 percent of other private school 10th-graders were proficient at level 2 (simple inferences), compared to 45 percent of public school 10th-graders.

• Students who did more math homework were more proficient in simple problem solving (35 percent of those who did no homework, 46 percent of those who did 1-4 hours of math homework per week, and 53 percent of those who did 5 or more hours of math homework per week were proficient at this level).
• Students who cut class frequently were less likely to be proficient than those who never cut class. In reading, at level 2 (simple inference), 28 percent of those who skipped class seven or more times in the first term of the school year were proficient, compared to 51 percent of those who never skipped class.

Values/life goals. Sophomores were asked about the outcomes they value for the future, about their educational expectations, and about their occupational expectations for age 30. Overall, the following proportions of sophomores rated the following life goals as "very important" to them:

• getting a good education (83 percent);
• becoming an expert in field of work (71 percent);
• having lots of money (42 percent);
• having leisure time to enjoy own interests (68 percent);
• finding the right person to marry (76 percent);
• having children (47 percent);
• having strong friendships (83 percent);
• living close to parents and relatives (30 percent); and
• working to correct social/economic inequalities (19 percent).

• Female sophomores (88 percent) and Black sophomores (90 percent) were more likely than male sophomores (78 percent) and White sophomores (80 percent) to rate a good education as very important.
• Having lots of money was very important to more low-SES sophomores (47 percent) than high-SES sophomores (36 percent), and it was very important to more Black sophomores (60 percent) than White sophomores (36 percent).
• Having leisure time was more often very important to high-SES sophomores than to low-SES sophomores (74 percent versus 60 percent).
• Becoming an expert in one's field of work was more often very important to Black sophomores (80 percent) than to their White counterparts (68 percent).

• Although expectations increased with ascending SES and test performance, expectations were relatively high for all groups. For example, about three-fifths (58 percent) of those in the lowest SES quartile and nearly half (48 percent) of those in the lowest achievement test quartile expected to, at minimum, graduate from college with a 4-year degree. About one-quarter (24 percent) of those in the lowest SES quartile expected to obtain a graduate or professional degree, as did 18 percent of those in the lowest test quartile.
• Nearly twice as many females as males expected to complete a doctoral or professional degree (20 percent versus 12 percent), whereas twice as many males as females expected to end their education with a high school diploma or less (11 percent versus 5 percent). A gender gap existed for White, Black, and Hispanic students. Some 41 percent of Black females expected to earn a graduate degree (master's, Ph.D., or other advanced degree), compared to 25 percent of Black males. Some 44 percent of White females expected to earn a graduate degree, compared to 31 percent of White males.
• This gender gap generally existed for White, Black, and Hispanic sophomores regardless of SES level. For example, among sophomores expecting to reach the highest level of educational attainment (graduate or professional degree), for the high-SES group, this expectation was held by 47 percent of White males, compared to 57 percent of White females; by 40 percent of Black males, compared to 68 percent of Black females; and by 33 percent of Hispanic males, compared to 53 percent of Hispanic females.

^*The selection of 5 percent as the criterion for substantive difference is based on similar analyses in other NCES reports (e.g., NCES 2004-078). It should be noted that the magnitude of effect that would be regarded as substantively or practically significant (and the categorization of the effect into large, medium, small, or trivial) may vary depending on the types and contexts of relationships and outcomes being measured.