• Introduction
• The Context
• Employer Perspectives
• Trends in Secondary Vocational Education
• Transitions After High School
• Trends in Postsecondary Vocational Education
• Conclusion
• Reference

With the advent of the 21st century, vocational education in the United States is in transition. Historically, the purpose of vocational education has been to prepare students for entry-level jobs in occupations requiring less than a baccalaureate degree. Over the last 15 years, however, this purpose has shifted toward broader preparation that develops the academic, vocational, and technical skills of students in vocational education programs. This preparation involves integrating academic and vocational education, emphasizing all aspects of an industry, and implementing academic performance measures, among other reform efforts. Vocational education policy now also encourages high school students to continue their studies at the postsecondary level, and 2-year postsecondary students to pursue 4-year credentials, through various arrangements for secondary-postsecondary articulation or "tech prep."¹ The traditional focus of vocational education is giving way to a broader purpose-one that includes greater emphasis on academic preparation and provides a wider range of career choices.

Vocational Education in the United States: Toward the Year 2000 attempts to capture this evolving enterprise. In addition to describing trends in participation in secondary and postsecondary vocational education, the report also presents findings about the academic preparation of high school students who participate in vocational education, relevant school reform efforts, and transitions after high school. However, the surveys available for assessing the status of vocational education were generally designed to capture more traditional conceptions of the enterprise and often do not provide information on the most current reform efforts. Nevertheless, the available data do signal that change is occurring in the directions advocated by reform efforts, although such change is often small and preliminary. The report also describes economic and labor market trends and their implications for vocational programs, as well as changing workplace practices and employer perspectives on worker skills and proficiency. The most important findings presented in the report are highlighted below.

The United States is shifting from a manufacturing-based economy to one that overwhelmingly provides services and information. These trends have two important implications for vocational education programs. They signal an ongoing shift in the education and training fields that are required of the U.S. workforce as well as shifts in the levels of that education and training. Vocational programs that prepare students for manufacturing jobs include trade and industry programs, such as construction, mechanics and repair, precision production, and transportation and material moving. Vocational programs that prepare students for jobs in the services and information industries include health care programs and technology and communications programs, among others.

Generally, the research literature describes a trend toward greater education and training requirements and a greater need for critical thinking, personal responsibility, and social skills among workforce participants. For example, recent projections anticipate that average growth will be greater for occupations requiring at least an associate's degree than for occupations requiring less education. However, these trends are not uniform across industries and occupations, and some disagree about their magnitude. Some emerging occupations require high education and training requirements (such as a bachelor's degree or moderate- to long-term on-the-job training), while many jobs still demand relatively low education and training levels. In 1996, 39 percent of all jobs required no more than short-term on-the-job training.

Understanding these economic and labor market trends provides a context for analyzing trends in vocational education. For example, if participation in vocational programs parallels changes in the economy, one would expect to see a decline in enrollments in trade and industry programs in recent years and an increase in enrollments in service- and information-related programs. Similarly, if vocational education reflects the labor market trend toward greater education and training requirements, one would expect to find that the academic preparation of students participating in vocational education has increased in recent years and that more of these participants are seeking and obtaining higher education and training credentials.

Changes in the economy and in education are altering workplace practices, which have implications for the skills required of employees. Increased global competition has spurred some U.S. businesses to create "high-performance workplaces," relying on flexible and decentralized work practices and multiskilled workers. These firms, however, are still in the minority. For example, 20 percent of surveyed employers reported engaging in performance benchmarking in 1997, and 25 percent had undergone reengineering. Larger firms were more likely than smaller firms to report these practices, indicating that the percentage of employees affected by these practices may be greater than the percentage of employers reporting them.

Also, the 1994 School-to-Work Opportunities Act advocated employer involvement in school-to-work partnerships and wider implementation of work-based learning, including job shadowing, mentoring, internships, and apprenticeships. Once again, however, a minority of firms reported participating in these activities. In 1997, one-quarter of surveyed employers reported participating in a school-to-work partnership, and 42 percent reported providing at least one formal work-based learning activity. As above, larger firms were more likely than smaller firms to report these different practices.

While the general labor market trend may be toward higher education and training requirements, employers have a unique perspective, which is particularly important in the short term. When hiring frontline workers from an established applicant pool, surveyed employers did not rate years of completed schooling or academic performance as highly as attitude and communication skills. However, it may be that years of completed schooling and academic performance are more important during initial applicant screening. It may also be that employers have historically found that schooling measures are not reliable indicators of what students know and can do.

With the evolving economy and changes in education and skill requirements, attention over the last 2 decades has focused on whether employees are adequately prepared for the demands of the workplace. According to most surveyed employers, the proficiency of their production workers either stayed the same or increased in recent years.³ In addition, the majority of employers with new production employees who participated in work-based learning reported that these employees were superior to comparable new hires in terms of productivity and attitude. Virtually no employers reported that employees with work-based learning experience were inferior in these two respects to comparable new hires.⁴

From 1982 to 1994, there was a general decline in the participation of high school students in vocational education (figure A). The average number of vocational credits public high school graduates earned decreased over the period studied, as did the percentage of graduates completing a sequence of related occupational courses.⁶

Trade and industry programs and business programs were the most popular occupational programs in 1994-about 8 percent of public high school graduates concentrated in each of these two areas. These were also the most popular programs in earlier years. However, consistent with reported economic trends, the percentage of graduates concentrating in trade and industry declined over the period studied, as did the percentage of graduates concentrating in business. (In 1982, about 15 percent of graduates had concentrated in trade and industry, and 12 percent in business.) Exhibiting an opposite trend, the proportions of students concentrating in health care and in technology and communications almost doubled from 1982 to 1994. Nevertheless, the percentages of high school graduates concentrating in these program areas in 1994 were still quite small (about 1 percent each).

Although participation in vocational education declined for most groups of public high school students between 1982 and 1994, there were a few exceptions to this trend. The percentages of black, non-Hispanic students and Asian/Pacific Islander students concentrating in vocational education stayed about the same over this period, and the concentration rate of students with disabilities increased. The increase in participation of students with disabilities is consistent with the emphasis of the 1990 Perkins Act on serving students with special needs.

The academic preparation of high school students participating in vocational education increased between 1982 and 1994, in both absolute and relative terms (figure B). While public high school graduates generally increased their coursetaking in the core academic subjects (English, mathematics, science, and social studies), the rate of increase was greater for vocational concentrators than for either college preparatory students or those completing general coursework in high school. Vocational concentrators also generally increased the rigor of their academic coursework, particularly in mathematics, science, and social studies. However, in 1994, vocational concentrators still completed fewer total credits in each of the core academic subjects than did either college preparatory students or those completing general coursework in high school.

Figure A.-Average number of vocational credits earned by public high school graduates and percentage of public high school graduates concentrating (accumulating 3 or more credits) in vocational programs: 1982, 1990, and 1994

By 1997, some public comprehensive high schools had implemented vocational education-related reforms, although the quality and specific forms of these efforts were not discernible from the available survey data. About half of these schools reported integrating academic and vocational education, and a similar proportion reported offering tech prep. Fewer schools reported having block scheduling, career majors, school-based enterprises, skill standards, or skill or occupational certificates. Generally, schools with career academies and larger schools were more likely to report these reforms, while rural schools were less likely to do so.

Vocational and academic high school teachers were similar in a number of ways: about the same proportions held bachelor's degrees, and similar percentages held either standard or advanced certification. However, about 8 percent of vocational teachers had less than a bachelor's degree, in comparison with less than 1 percent of academic teachers.⁹ Also, vocational teachers were generally older than academic teachers, which may be due to the fact that vocational teachers entered the teaching profession at an older age, possibly after obtaining industry experience. There were some variations among vocational teachers who taught in different program areas and school settings. For example, trade and industry and technical teachers and those teaching in more than one vocational field were generally less likely than other vocational teachers to have a bachelor's or advanced degree.

The postsecondary enrollment rates of public high school graduates showed a marked increase between 1982 and 1992. About half of those students graduating in 1982 enrolled in a postsecondary institution within 2 years, while about three-fourths of the more recent graduating class enrolled within 2 years. Between 1982 and 1992, postsecondary enrollment rates increased for vocational concentrators and students completing general coursework in high school, but not for college preparatory graduates (figure C). While the gap in enrollment rates among the three groups of students appeared to be narrowing, 1992 vocational concentrators were still less likely than their college preparatory peers and those completing general coursework in high school to enroll in a postsecondary institution within 2 years. However, vocational concentrators who also completed a college preparatory curriculum had enrollment outcomes that were more like those of their college preparatory peers than did strictly vocational concentrators.

Figure B.-Percentage of public high school graduates meeting the New Basics core academic standards,¹ by curriculum specialization in high school: 1982, 1990, and 1994

Vocational concentrators were more likely than students completing general coursework in high school to obtain a degree or certificate within 2 years, despite the fact that the two groups enrolled at similar rates in community colleges and that vocational concentrators were more likely to be employed while in school.

Among 1982 graduates, vocational concentrators were less likely than either their college preparatory peers or students completing general coursework in high school to enroll in postsecondary education by 1992. However, vocational concentrators who also completed a college preparatory curriculum were about as likely as college preparatory graduates to enroll during this 10-year period.

More than half of 1982 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education completed a degree or certificate by 1992. Vocational concentrators had lower overall rates of postsecondary completion than their peers. However, vocational concentrators who also completed a college preparatory curriculum were as likely as college preparatory graduates to earn a postsecondary degree or certificate during this period. Among graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 1992, vocational concentrators were less likely than their peers to earn a bachelor's degree, but more likely to obtain a certificate or an associate's degree.

Labor market outcomes 2 years after leaving high school were similar for the graduating classes of 1982 and 1992. In both cases, about three out of four public high school graduates were in the labor force. Vocational concentrators in both graduating classes were more likely than their college preparatory peers to be in the labor force 2 years after graduation. While 1992 public high school graduates had similar labor market experiences regardless of their course of study in high school, 1982 college preparatory graduates tended to have lower unemployment rates than vocational concentrators and those completing general coursework in high school. This difference between the two graduating classes may be due to shifts over the decade in economic conditions, changes in the academic preparation of high school graduates, or other factors.

Figure C.-Percentage of 1982 and 1992 public high school graduates enrolling in postsecondary institutions by 1984 and 1994, respectively, by curriculum specialization in high school

Vocational concentrators and students completing general coursework in high school had similar labor market outcomes 10 years after graduation from high school. While the number of months employed and unemployed was similar regardless of students' course of study in high school, college preparatory graduates tended to enjoy higher earnings in 1991 than their peers, possibly because of their greater postsecondary attainment. Obtaining a bachelor's degree was generally associated with increased earnings and lower unemployment rates. At the other end of the educational spectrum, students who earned a postsecondary certificate had similar annual earnings and unemployment rates as their peers who did not complete a postsecondary degree or certificate. Both those who held a postsecondary certificate and those who held a high school diploma earned less and were more likely to be unemployed in 1991 than graduates who held an associate's degree or higher.

The United States has experienced both greater educational participation and higher attainment in recent years, continuing long-standing patterns. More people are attending postsecondary institutions than ever before, and the average educational attainment of the adult population has been steadily rising. While the total number of adults who earned vocational associate's degrees appeared to increase slightly between 1992 and 1996, this difference was not statistically significant. However, the total number of adults who held academic associate's degrees increased over the 4 years by approximately an additional 1 million people.¹²

Although postsecondary enrollments overall have shown recent increases, there is no evidence that bachelor's degree holders are returning in large numbers for additional undergraduate schooling, as some have speculated. In particular, small proportions of students who were pursuing associate's degrees or certificates had already earned a bachelor's or advanced degree. The vast majority of students who enroll in postsecondary education are pursuing a higher level credential than the one they currently possess. However, this report focused on students who participate in for-credit postsecondary programs. It may be that a significant number of bachelor's degree holders are taking noncredit, adult, or continuing education courses.

Vocational coursework represents a substantial component of sub-baccalaureate students' education. Among all sub-baccalaureate students, about one-half majored in a vocational program area in 1996; the proportion decreased from 54 to 49 percent over the 6 years from 1990 to 1996.¹³ There was an increase between 1990 and 1996 in the proportion of postsecondary vocational students being served by community colleges, with a corresponding decrease at private proprietary institutions (figure D).

Sub-baccalaureate students with vocational majors were more likely to be older, to have family responsibilities, to receive financial aid, to have a previous postsecondary degree or certificate, and to report higher postsecondary grade-point averages (GPAs) than their academic counterparts. These students with vocational majors also tended to have parents with lower educational attainment: as the education level of their parents increased, students' likelihood of reporting a vocational major generally decreased. Differences by race/ethnicity among sub-baccalaureate students in their probability of having a vocational major were either minimal or not statistically significant. Also, among sub-baccalaureate students, there was no clear association between majoring in a vocational field and disability status.

Business, health, and technical fields (the latter including engineering/science technologies, computers/data processing, and protective services) accounted for large numbers of vocational students' majors. However, between 1990 and 1996, there were small decreases in the proportions of sub-baccalaureate students reporting majors in business, marketing, computers/data processing, and engineering/science technologies. Thus, the absolute level of participation in service- and information-related programs was relatively high in 1996, while the trend in these areas was generally downward over the 6-year period.

Among sub-baccalaureate students, gender gaps persisted in the fields of business, health, and "other vocational" fields (where women predominated), as well as in trade and industry, protective services, computers/data processing, and engineering/science technologies (where men predominated). A particularly large gap between the participation of men and women occurred in 1996 in engineering/science technologies, a field in which 12 percent of male students and only 2 percent of female students declared a major.

Among the group of students who first began their postsecondary studies in 1989-90, those with academic majors were more likely than those with vocational majors to have completed at least one postsecondary credential 4 years later. However, a majority of both academic and vocational majors completed some type of degree or certificate within 4 years.

This report describes vocational education at the turn of the century as an enterprise in transition. The available data signal that change is occurring in the directions advocated by recent reform efforts, in particular, improved academic preparation and greater postsecondary participation. Evidence of change includes findings that the academic preparation of public high school students participating in vocational education increased between 1982 and 1994; about half of public comprehensive high schools reported integrating academic and vocational education in 1997, and a similar proportion reported offering tech prep; and from 1982 to 1992, postsecondary enrollment rates within 2 years of public high school graduation increased significantly for vocational concentrators.

There is mixed evidence that trends in participation in vocational programs reflect economic shifts away from manufacturing toward services and information industries. For example, at the high school level, the percentage of graduates who concentrated in trade and industry declined between 1982 and 1994, and the proportions of students who concentrated in health care and in technology and communications increased over the period. However, the percentages of high school graduates who concentrated in health care and in technology and communications were still quite small in 1994 (about 1 percent each). At the postsecondary level, for example, health and engineering/science technologies were popular vocational majors in 1996. However, there were small decreases between 1990 and 1996 in the proportions of sub-baccalaureate students reporting majors in computers/data processing and in engineering/science technologies. Thus, data on trends in and levels of participation in health and technology programs provided conflicting information about whether vocational program participation is paralleling the economic shift toward services and information industries.

Figure D.-Percentage distribution of sub-baccalaureate students reporting a vocational major according to type of postsecondary institution: 1989-90 and 1995-96