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Chapter 6: International Comparisons of Education
This chapter offers a broad perspective on education across the nations of the world. It also provides an international context for examining the condition of education in the United States. Insights into the educational practices and outcomes of the United States are obtained by comparing them with those of other education systems. Most of the education systems represent countries; however, some of the tables in this chapter also include data for subnational entities with separate education systems, such as Hong Kong. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) carries out a variety of activities to provide statistical data for international comparisons of education.
This chapter presents data drawn from materials prepared by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Basic summary data on enrollments and enrollment ratios, teachers, educational attainment, and finances are synthesized from data published by the OECD in the Online Education Database, as well as from data collected by UNESCO. Even though these tabulations are carefully prepared, international data users should be cautioned about the many problems of definition and reporting involved in the collection of data about the education systems of the world, which vary greatly in structure from country to country (see the UNESCO entry at the end of Appendix A: Guide to Sources).
Also presented in this chapter are data from two international assessments of student achievement that are carried out under the aegis of IEA and supported by NCES. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), formerly known as the Third International Mathematics and Science Study, assesses the mathematics and science knowledge and skills of fourth- and eighth-graders every 4 years. The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) measures the reading knowledge and skills of fourth-graders every 5 years.
This chapter includes additional information from two OECD assessments supported by NCES. The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) provides performance scores of 15-year-olds in the areas of reading, mathematics, and science literacy; it also measures general, or cross-curricular, competencies such as learning strategies. The Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) assesses the cognitive skills of adults in the areas of literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments. PIAAC measures relationships between adults’ skills in these areas and their educational background, workplace experiences, occupational attainment, and use of information and communication technology. While PISA and PIAAC focus on OECD countries, data from some non-OECD education systems are also provided.
Further information on survey methodologies is in Appendix A: Guide to Sources and in the publications cited in the table source notes.
Population
Among reporting OECD countries, Mexico had the largest percentage of its population made up of young people ages 5 to 14 (19 percent) in 2016, followed by Israel (18 percent) and Turkey (16 percent) (web-only table 601.30). OECD countries with the smallest percentages of people in this age group were Lithuania, Italy, the Republic of Korea, Germany, and Japan (all at 9 percent) and Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Latvia, Greece, Portugal, Hungary, Switzerland, Slovenia, and Austria (all at 10 percent). In the United States, 13 percent of the population was 5 to 14 years old, which was higher than the percentages in most other OECD countries.
Enrollments
In 2016, about 1.5 billion students were enrolled in schools around the world (table 601.10). Of these students, 737 million were in elementary programs, 588 million were in secondary programs, and 220 million were in postsecondary programs.
From 2000 to 2016, enrollment changes varied from region to region. Elementary enrollment in 2016 was 71 percent higher in Africa, 34 percent higher in Oceania, and 2 percent higher in Asia than it was in 2000 (table F, table 601.10, and figure 27). In contrast, elementary enrollment in 2016 was 9 percent lower in Central and South America (including Latin America and the Caribbean), 6 percent lower in Europe, and less than 1 percent lower in Northern America (including Bermuda, Canada, Greenland, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and the United States) than it was in 2000. At the secondary level, enrollment in 2016 was 101 percent higher in Africa, 38 percent higher in Asia, 20 percent higher in Oceania, 13 percent higher in Central and South America, and 9 percent higher in Northern America than it was in 2000. In contrast, secondary enrollment in Europe was 17 percent lower in 2016 than it was in 2000. At the postsecondary level, enrollment in all major areas of the world was higher in 2016 than it was in 2000. Postsecondary enrollment in 2016 was 205 percent higher in Asia, 138 percent higher in Central and South America, 134 percent higher in Africa, 71 percent higher in Oceania, 45 percent higher in Northern America, and 14 percent higher in Europe than it was in 2000.
Across OECD countries in 2016, the average enrollment rate of 5- to 14-year-olds was 98 percent, and this enrollment rate was at least 93 percent in all 36 of the OECD countries that reported data (table 601.35). In the United States, the enrollment rate for 5- to 14-year-olds was 99 percent. Among the 35 OECD countries that reported data for 15- to 19-year-olds, 9 countries had rates of at least 90 percent and 2 countries had rates of 70 percent or lower (table 601.40). The U.S. enrollment rate for 15- to 19-year-olds was 83 percent, which was lower than the OECD average of 85 percent. Among the 35 countries that reported data for 20- to 29-year-olds, 4 countries had rates of at least 40 percent, and 1 country had a rate of 15 percent or lower. The U.S. enrollment rate for 20- to 29-year-olds was 25 percent, which was lower than the OECD average of 29 percent.
In all 35 OECD countries that reported secondary and postsecondary enrollment data in 2016, a higher percentage of 17-year-olds were enrolled at the secondary level than at the postsecondary level (table 601.40). For older students, however, patterns of enrollment at the secondary and postsecondary levels varied across OECD countries. For example, 14 countries had a higher percentage of their 19-year-olds enrolled at the secondary level than at the postsecondary level, while 21 countries had a higher percentage enrolled at the postsecondary level than at the secondary level. The percentage of 19-year-olds enrolled at the secondary level was at least 5 times higher than the percentage enrolled at the postsecondary level in 3 countries. At the other end of the spectrum, the percentage of 19-year-olds enrolled at the postsecondary level was at least 5 times higher than the percentage enrolled at the secondary level in 6 countries, including the United States (52 vs. 5 percent). For 20-year-olds, although only 4 OECD countries reported a higher enrollment rate at the secondary level than at the postsecondary level, there were 13 countries that reported a secondary enrollment rate of at least 15 percent. For the 20- to 29-year-old age group, there were no countries that reported a higher enrollment rate at the secondary level than at the postsecondary level, and all secondary enrollment rates were below 15 percent. At the postsecondary level, only 3 OECD countries reported an enrollment rate below 15 percent for this age group, and 10 countries reported a rate that was at least 25 percent. The U.S. postsecondary enrollment rate for 20- to 29-year-olds was 23 percent, which was the same as the OECD average for this age group.
Achievement
Mathematics and Science at Grades 4 and 8
The 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) assessed students’ mathematics and science performance at grades 4 and 8. Mathematics performance was assessed in 43 countries at grade 4 and in 34 countries at grade 8. Science performance was assessed in 42 countries at grade 4 and in 34 countries at grade 8. TIMSS Advanced data were also collected by 9 countries from students in their final year of secondary school (grade 12 in the United States). At grades 4 and 8, in addition to countries, several subnational entities also participated in TIMSS as separate education systems. Examples of subnational participants include the cities of Hong Kong and Chinese Taipei, the U.S. state of Florida, the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec, England and Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom, and the Flemish community in Belgium. In the following paragraphs, comparisons of the United States to other countries do not include the subnational participants. Results for Florida are based on public school students only, while U.S. national results are based on both public and private school students. TIMSS is curriculum based, and the assessments of fourth- and eighth-graders measure what students have actually learned against the subject matter that is expected to be taught by the end of grades 4 and 8, as described in the TIMSS mathematics and science frameworks, which guide assessment development. TIMSS Advanced is designed to broadly align with the advanced mathematics and physics curricula in the participating countries. At all three grades, TIMSS scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000, with a fixed scale centerpoint of 500.
In 2015, the average mathematics scores of U.S. fourth-graders (539) and eighth-graders (518) were higher than the TIMSS scale centerpoint of 500 (table 602.20 and table 602.30). At grade 4, the average U.S. mathematics score was higher than the average score in 30 of the 42 other countries participating at grade 4, lower than the average score in 6 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 6 countries (table 602.30). The 6 countries that outperformed the United States in fourth-grade mathematics were Ireland, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Norway, the Russian Federation, and Singapore. At grade 8, the average U.S. mathematics score was higher than the average score in 21 of the 33 other participating countries, lower than the average score in 5 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 7 countries (table 602.30). The 5 countries that outperformed the United States in eighth-grade mathematics were Canada, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, and Singapore.
Florida, the only U.S. state participating in the 2015 TIMSS as a separate education system, had an average mathematics score for public schools at grade 4 (546) that was higher than the TIMSS scale centerpoint but was not measurably different from the U.S. national average score in mathematics (table 602.20). At grade 8, Florida had a public school average score (493) that was not measurably different from the TIMSS scale centerpoint but was lower than the U.S. national average in mathematics (table 602.30).
The average science scores of both U.S. fourth-graders (546) and U.S. eighth-graders (530) were higher than the TIMSS scale centerpoint of 500 in 2015 (tables 602.20 and 602.30). The average U.S. fourth-grade science score was higher than the average score in 30 of the 41 other countries participating at grade 4, lower than the average score in 5 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 6 countries (table 602.20). The 5 countries that outperformed the United States in fourth-grade science were Finland, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, and Singapore. At grade 8, the average U.S. science score was higher than the average score in 23 of the 33 other countries participating at grade 8, lower than the average score in 5 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 5 countries (table 602.30). The 5 countries that outperformed the United States in eighth-grade science were Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, Singapore, and Slovenia.
Public schools in Florida had an average fourth-grade science score (549) that was higher than the TIMSS scale centerpoint but was not measurably different from the U.S. national average (table 602.20). At grade 8, Florida had a public school average score (508) that was not measurably different from the TIMSS scale centerpoint but was lower than the U.S. national average in science (table 602.30).
The TIMSS Advanced assessment measures the advanced mathematics and physics achievement of students in their final year of secondary school who are taking or have taken advanced courses (table 602.35). On TIMSS Advanced in 2015, the U.S. average advanced mathematics score (485) and physics score (437) were both lower than the TIMSS Advanced scale centerpoint of 500.
Reading Literacy at Grade 4
The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) conducted international assessments of fourth-grade reading literacy in 2001, 2006, 2011, and 2016. In 2016, PIRLS participants consisted of 43 countries as well as several subnational education systems. Examples of subnational participants include the cities of Hong Kong and Chinese Taipei, the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec, England and Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom, and the Flemish and French communities in Belgium. PIRLS scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000, with a fixed scale centerpoint of 500.
On the 2016 PIRLS, U.S. fourth-graders had an average reading literacy score of 549 (table 602.10). The U.S. average score in 2016 was 7 points lower than in 2011 but 10 points higher than in 2006. In all 4 assessment years, the U.S. average score was higher than the PIRLS scale centerpoint.
In 2016, the average reading literacy score of fourth-graders in the United States was higher than the average score in 24 of the 42 other participating countries, lower than the average score in 7 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 11 countries. The 7 countries that outperformed the United States on the 2016 PIRLS were Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Norway, Poland, the Russian Federation, and Singapore.
Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy at Age 15
The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) assesses 15-year-old students’ application of reading, mathematics, and science literacy to problems within a real-life context. In 2015, PISA assessed students in the 35 OECD countries as well as several other education systems. Some subnational entities participated as separate education systems, including the U.S. states of Massachusetts and North Carolina. Results for individual U.S. states are based on public school students only, while U.S. national results are based on both public and private school students. PISA scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000.
On the 2015 PISA assessment, U.S. 15-year-olds’ average score in reading literacy was 497, which was not measurably different from the OECD average score of 493 (table 602.50). The average reading literacy score in the United States was lower than the average score in 11 of the 34 other OECD countries, higher than the average score in 13 OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average score in 10 OECD countries. The average reading literacy score of public school students in Massachusetts (527) was higher than both the U.S. average score and the OECD average score, while the average score in North Carolina (500) was not measurably different from either the U.S. average score or the OECD average score. In all participating education systems, females outperformed males in reading literacy (table 602.40). The U.S. gender gap in reading (20 points) was not measurably different from the OECD average gap but was smaller than the gaps in 12 other OECD countries.
In mathematics literacy, U.S. 15-year-olds’ average score of 470 on the 2015 PISA assessment was lower than the OECD average score of 490 (table 602.60). The average mathematics literacy score in the United States was lower than the average score in 27 of the 34 other OECD countries, higher than the average score in 4 OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average score in 3 OECD countries. The average mathematics literacy score of public school students in Massachusetts (500) was higher than the U.S. average score but was not measurably different from the OECD average score, while the average score in North Carolina (471) was not measurably different from the U.S. average score but was lower than the OECD average score. In 18 OECD countries, including the United States, males outperformed females in mathematics literacy (table 602.40). The U.S. gender gap in favor of males in mathematics (9 points) was not measurably different from the OECD average gap.
In science literacy, U.S. 15-year-olds’ average score of 496 on the 2015 PISA assessment was not measurably different from the OECD average score of 493 (table 602.70). The average science literacy score in the United States was lower than the average score in 12 of the 34 other OECD countries, higher than the average score in 10 OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average score in 12 OECD countries. The average science literacy score of public school students in Massachusetts (529) was higher than both the U.S. average score and the OECD average score. The average score in North Carolina (502) was not measurably different from either the U.S. average score or the OECD average score. In 15 OECD countries, including the United States, males outperformed females in science literacy. In 4 OECD countries, females outperformed males in science literacy. The U.S. gender gap in favor of males in science (7 points) was not measurably different from the OECD average gap.
Educational Attainment
In 2017, the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds who had completed high school varied among the 34 reporting OECD countries (table 603.10). The OECD country reporting the highest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds who had completed high school was the Czech Republic (94 percent). High school completers made up at least 80 percent of 25- to 64-year-olds in 21 other OECD countries, including the United States (91 percent). The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds who had completed high school was Mexico (38 percent).
In 2017, the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with a postsecondary degree (i.e., any degree at the associate’s level or higher) also varied among the 35 OECD countries reporting data for this level of educational attainment (table 603.20). The OECD country reporting the highest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with a postsecondary degree was Canada (57 percent). Forty-six percent of 25- to 64-year-olds in the United States attained a postsecondary degree, and an additional 20 OECD countries reported that more than 35 percent of their 25- to 64-year-olds had a postsecondary degree. The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with a postsecondary degree was Mexico (17 percent).
Among younger adults (those 25 to 34 years old) in the 35 OECD countries reporting data, the percentage with a postsecondary degree also varied in 2017 (table 603.20 and figure 28). The OECD country reporting the highest percentage of younger adults with a postsecondary degree was the Republic of Korea (70 percent). More than 35 percent of younger adults had a postsecondary degree in 27 other OECD countries, including the United States (48 percent). Nine countries reported percentages of younger adults with a postsecondary degree that were higher than the percentage in the United States. In 4 countries (Norway, Israel, Iceland, and Sweden), the percentages of younger adults with a postsecondary degree were not measurably different from the percentage in the United States. In contrast, 21 countries reported percentages of younger adults with a postsecondary degree that were lower than the percentage in the United States. The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of younger adults with a degree was Mexico (23 percent).
Degrees
In 2016, more than half of all postsecondary degrees (i.e., any degree at the associate’s level or higher) were awarded to women in 32 of the 34 OECD countries reporting a total percentage awarded to women (web-only table 603.60). For example, in the United States, 58 percent of all postsecondary degrees were awarded to women. However, the percentage of degrees awarded to women varied by field. Thirty-three countries reported data for the field of education; in 32 of these countries, including the United States, at least 70 percent of education degrees were awarded to women. In contrast, in 16 of the 33 countries reporting data for the combined field of engineering, manufacturing, and construction, less than 25 percent of these degrees were awarded to women. In the United States, 20 percent of degrees in engineering, manufacturing, and construction were awarded to women.
In 2016, the percentage of bachelor’s degrees awarded in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields—including natural science, mathematics, statistics, information and communication technologies, engineering, manufacturing, and construction—varied across the 36 OECD countries reporting these data (web-only table 603.70). Two of the reporting OECD countries awarded 30 percent or more of their bachelor’s degrees in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields: Germany (36 percent) and the Republic of Korea (32 percent). Three countries awarded 15 percent or less of their bachelor’s degrees in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields: Norway, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands (all at 15 percent). The United States awarded 20 percent of its bachelor’s degrees in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields, which was lower than the OECD average (23 percent).
The percentages of graduate degrees awarded in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields varied widely across OECD countries in 2016. In all but 1 of the 35 OECD countries reporting data on both master’s and doctor’s degrees, a higher percentage of degrees were awarded in these fields at the doctoral level than at the master’s level. The exception was Japan, which had a higher percentage of degrees awarded in these fields at the master’s level than at the doctoral level. At the master’s level, 5 of the 36 OECD countries reporting data at this level awarded 30 percent or more of their degrees in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields: Japan (42 percent), Germany (35 percent), Portugal (34 percent), Estonia (32 percent), and Sweden (31 percent). The United States awarded 16 percent of its master’s degrees in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields, which was lower than the OECD average (22 percent). However, 5 of the reporting OECD countries awarded 15 percent or less of their master’s degrees in these fields: Luxembourg (13 percent), Israel (12 percent), Iceland (12 percent), Mexico (10 percent), and Chile (7 percent). At the doctoral level, 9 of the 35 OECD countries reporting data at this level awarded at least half of their degrees in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields: France (63 percent), Israel (58 percent), Estonia (56 percent), Chile (55 percent), Luxembourg (55 percent), Sweden (52 percent), Canada (52 percent), Switzerland (51 percent), and Austria (50 percent). Two OECD countries reported awarding less than 30 percent of their doctor’s degrees in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields: Slovenia (25 percent) and Mexico (17 percent). The United States awarded 42 percent of its doctor’s degrees in science and mathematics, information technologies, and engineering fields, which was lower than the OECD average of 44 percent.
Skills of Adults
The Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) assesses the cognitive skills of adults in three areas—literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments—that are considered key to facilitating the social and economic participation of adults in advanced economies. The discussion below focuses on the areas of literacy and numeracy. PIAAC 2012 results are available for adults in 24 participating countries and regions, including 22 that belong to the OECD. Participating countries and regions are referred to collectively as “education systems” in the Digest. The education systems that participated in the 2012 assessment were primarily countries but also included 3 subnational education systems: Northern Ireland and England within the United Kingdom and the Flemish community in Belgium. PIAAC literacy and numeracy scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 500.
In 2012, average scores on the PIAAC literacy scale for adults ages 25 to 65 ranged from 249 in Italy and 250 in Spain to 296 in Japan (table 604.10). U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds had an average PIAAC literacy score of 269, which was not measurably different from the OECD average score of 271. Across education systems, adults’ average literacy scores generally increased with higher levels of educational attainment. In the United States, for example, 25- to 65-year-olds whose highest level of educational attainment was high school completion had an average literacy score of 259, compared with an average score of 302 for those who had a bachelor’s or higher degree. The literacy score for U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds who had completed only high school was lower than the OECD average score of 268 for those who had completed only high school, while the literacy score for U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds with a bachelor’s or higher degree was not measurably different from the OECD average score of 302 for those with a bachelor’s or higher degree.
On the PIAAC numeracy scale, 2012 average scores for adults ages 25 to 65 ranged from 245 in Spain and 246 in Italy to 289 in Japan. U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds had an average PIAAC numeracy score of 254, which was lower than the OECD average score of 268. Across education systems, adults’ average numeracy scores generally increased with higher levels of educational attainment. In the United States, for example, 25- to 65-year-olds whose highest level of attainment was high school completion had an average numeracy score of 241, compared with an average score of 293 for those who had a bachelor’s or higher degree. The numeracy score for U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds who had completed only high school was lower than the OECD average score of 265 for those who had completed only high school. Likewise, the average numeracy score of U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds with a bachelor’s or higher degree was lower than the OECD average score of 303 for those with a bachelor’s or higher degree.
Finances
In 2015, expenditures per full-time-equivalent (FTE) student (expressed in current U.S. dollars) varied by level of education and across OECD countries. At the combined elementary and secondary level of education, expenditures per FTE student were $12,400 in the United States, which was higher than the OECD average of $9,300 (table 605.10). In addition to the United States, 8 of the 32 other OECD countries that reported data at the combined elementary and secondary level had expenditures of at least $11,000 per FTE student: Luxembourg ($20,500), Norway ($14,400), Austria ($13,900), Belgium ($11,900), the Republic of Korea ($11,700), Iceland ($11,200), Sweden ($11,100), and the United Kingdom ($11,000). At the higher education level, the United States spent $30,000 per FTE student, which was higher than the OECD average of $15,600. In addition to the United States, 6 of the 33 other OECD countries that reported higher education finance data had expenditures of over $20,000 per FTE student: Luxembourg ($48,900), the United Kingdom ($26,300), Sweden ($24,400), Canada ($21,800), Norway ($21,000), and Australia ($20,300). These expenditures were adjusted to U.S. dollars using the purchasing-power-parity (PPP) index. This index is considered more stable and comparable than indexes using currency exchange rates; for more information, see Appendix B: Definitions.
Total government and private expenditures on education institutions as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) varied across the 34 reporting OECD countries in 2015, ranging from 3.5 percent in Ireland and Luxembourg to 6.4 percent in Norway (table 605.20 and figure 29). In the United States, total expenditures on education institutions amounted to 6.1 percent of GDP, which was higher than the OECD average of 5.0 percent. A comparison of government expenditures on education institutions as a percentage of GDP shows that public investment in education ranged from 2.9 percent in Japan to 6.3 percent in Norway. In the United States, the government expenditure on education institutions as a percentage of GDP was 4.1 percent. The OECD average government expenditure on education institutions was also 4.1 percent of GDP.
