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Chapter 6: International Comparisons of Education
This chapter offers a broad perspective on education across the nations of the world. It also provides an international context for examining the condition of education in the United States. Insights into the educational practices and outcomes of the United States are obtained by comparing them with those of other education systems. Most of the education systems represent countries; however, some of the tables in this chapter also include data for subnational entities with separate education systems, such as Hong Kong. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) carries out a variety of activities in order to provide statistical data for international comparisons of education.
This chapter presents data drawn from materials prepared by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Basic summary data on enrollments and enrollment ratios, teachers, educational attainment, and finances were synthesized from data published by the OECD in the Online Education Database and the annual Education at a Glance report, as well as from data collected by UNESCO. Even though these tabulations are carefully prepared, international data users should be cautioned about the many problems of definition and reporting involved in the collection of data about the education systems of the world, which vary greatly in structure from country to country (see the UNESCO entry at the end of Appendix A: Guide to Sources).
Also presented in this chapter are data from two international assessments of student achievement that are carried out under the aegis of IEA and supported by NCES. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), formerly known as the Third International Mathematics and Science Study, assesses the mathematics and science knowledge and skills of fourth- and eighth-graders every 4 years. The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) measures the reading knowledge and skills of fourth-graders every 5 years.
This chapter includes additional information from two OECD assessments supported by NCES. The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) provides performance scores of 15-year-olds in the areas of reading, mathematics, and science literacy; it also measures general, or cross-curricular, competencies such as learning strategies. The Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) assesses the cognitive skills of adults in the areas of literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments. PIAAC measures relationships between adults' skills in these areas and their educational background, workplace experiences, occupational attainment, and use of information and communication technology. While PISA and PIAAC focus on OECD countries, data from some non-OECD education systems are also provided.
Further information on survey methodologies is in Appendix A: Guide to Sources and in the publications cited in the table source notes.
Population
Among reporting OECD countries, Mexico had the largest percentage of its population made up of young people ages 5 to 14 (19 percent) in 2013, followed by Israel (18 percent) and Turkey (17 percent) (table 601.30). OECD countries with small percentages of people in this age group included the Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Japan, Latvia, and Slovenia (all at 9 percent), and Austria, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, the Republic of Korea, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, and Switzerland (all at 10 percent). In the United States, the proportion of 5- to 14-year-olds was 13 percent, which was higher than in most other OECD countries.
Enrollments
In 2014, about 1.5 billion students were enrolled in schools around the world (table 601.10). Of these students, 719 million were in elementary programs, 568 million were in secondary programs, and 208 million were in postsecondary programs.
From 2000 to 2014, enrollment changes varied from region to region. Changes in elementary enrollment ranged from increases of 64 percent in Africa, 39 percent in Oceania, and less than 1 percent in Asia to decreases of 8 percent in Europe, 7 percent in Central and South America (including Latin America and the Caribbean), and 2 percent in Northern America (including Bermuda, Canada, Greenland, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and the United States) (table F, table 601.10, and figure 27). Over the same period, secondary enrollment increased by 88 percent in Africa, 33 percent in Asia, 12 percent in Central and South America, 7 percent in Northern America, and 4 percent in Oceania, but decreased by 18 percent in Europe. At the postsecondary level, enrollments increased in all major areas of the world from 2000 to 2014. Postsecondary enrollment rose by 184 percent in Asia, 114 percent in Africa, 109 percent in Central and South America, 67 percent in Oceania, 46 percent in Northern America, and 20 percent in Europe.
Across OECD countries in 2014, an average enrollment rate of 98 percent was reported for 5- to 14-year-olds, and the enrollment rate was at least 93 percent in all 32 of the OECD countries that reported data for this age group (table 601.35). In the United States, the enrollment rate for 5- to 14-year-olds was 97 percent in 2014. Among the 33 OECD countries that reported 2014 data for 15- to 19-year-olds, 7 countries had rates of at least 90 percent and 2 countries had rates below 70 percent (table 601.40). The U.S. enrollment rate for 15- to 19-year-olds was 82 percent in 2014, which was lower than the OECD average of 84 percent. Among the 32 countries that reported 2014 data for 20- to 29-year-olds, 2 countries had rates above 40 percent and 3 countries had rates of 15 percent or less. The U.S. enrollment rate for 20- to 29-year-olds was 25 percent in 2014, which was lower than the OECD average of 28 percent.
In all 32 OECD countries that reported separate secondary and postsecondary enrollment data for 17-year-olds in 2014, a higher percentage of 17-year-olds were enrolled at the secondary level than at the postsecondary level. For older students, however, patterns of enrollment at the secondary and postsecondary levels varied across OECD countries in 2014. For example, 15 countries had a higher percentage of their 19-year-olds enrolled at the secondary level, while 17 countries had a higher percentage enrolled at the postsecondary level. The percentage of 19-year-olds enrolled at the secondary level was at least 5 times higher than the percentage enrolled at the postsecondary level in 3 countries. At the other end of the spectrum, the percentage of 19-year-olds enrolled at the postsecondary level was at least 5 times higher than the percentage enrolled at the secondary level in 4 countries, including the United States (52 vs. 6 percent). For 20-year-olds, although only 3 OECD countries reported a higher 2014 enrollment rate at the secondary than at the postsecondary level, there were 10 countries that reported a secondary enrollment rate of at least 15 percent. For the combined 20- to 29-year-old age group, there were no countries that reported higher enrollment rates at the secondary than at the postsecondary level, and all secondary enrollment rates were below 15 percent. At the postsecondary level, only 2 OECD countries reported enrollment rates below 15 percent for this age group, and 8 countries reported rates that were at least 25 percent. The U.S. postsecondary enrollment rate for 20- to 29-year-olds was 24 percent in 2014, which was higher than the OECD average postsecondary enrollment rate of 22 for this age group.
Achievement
Mathematics and Science at Grades 4 and 8
The 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) assessed students' mathematics and science performance at grades 4 and 8. Mathematics performance was assessed in 43 countries at grade 4 and in 34 countries at grade 8. Science performance was assessed in 42 countries at grade 4 and in 34 countries at grade 8. TIMSS Advanced data were also collected by 9 countries from students in their final year of secondary school (in the United States, 12th-graders). At grades 4 and 8, in addition to countries, a number of subnational entities also participated in TIMSS as separate education systems. Examples of subnational participants include the cities of Hong Kong and Chinese Taipei, the U.S. state of Florida, the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec, England and Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom, and the Flemish community in Belgium. In the following paragraphs, comparisons of the United States to other countries do not include the subnational participants. Results for Florida are based on public school students only, while U.S. national results are based on both public and private school students. TIMSS is curriculum based, and the assessments of fourth- and eighth-graders measure what students have actually learned against the subject matter that is expected to be taught by the end of grades 4 and 8, as described in the TIMSS mathematics and science frameworks, which guide assessment development. TIMSS Advanced is designed to broadly align with the advanced mathematics and physics curricula in the participating countries. At all three grades, TIMSS scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000, with a fixed scale centerpoint of 500.
In 2015, the average mathematics scores of U.S. fourth-graders (539) and eighth-graders (518) were higher than the TIMSS centerpoint of 500 (tables 602.20 and 602.30). The average U.S. fourth-grade mathematics score was higher than the average score in 30 of the 42 other countries participating at grade 4, lower than the average score in 6 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 6 countries (table 602.20). The 6 countries that outperformed the United States in fourth-grade mathematics were Ireland, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Norway, the Russian Federation, and Singapore. At grade 8, the average U.S. mathematics score was higher than the average score in 21 of the 33 other participating countries, lower than the average score in 5 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 7 countries (table 602.30). The 5 countries that outperformed the United States in eighth-grade mathematics were Canada, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, and Singapore.
Florida, the only U.S. state participating in the 2015 TIMSS as a separate education system, had an average mathematics score for public schools at grade 4 (546) that was higher than the TIMSS centerpoint but was not measurably different from the U.S. national average in mathematics (table 602.20). At grade 8, Florida had a public school average score (493) that was not measurably different from the TIMSS scale average but was lower than the U.S. national average in mathematics (table 602.30).
The average science scores of both U.S. fourth-graders (546) and U.S. eighth-graders (530) were higher than the TIMSS scale centerpoint of 500 in 2015 (tables 602.20 and 602.30). The average U.S. fourth-grade science score was higher than the average score in 30 of the 41 other countries participating in the science assessment at grade 4, lower than the average score in 5 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 6 countries (table 602.20). The 5 countries that outperformed the United States in fourth-grade science were Finland, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, and Singapore. At grade 8, the average U.S. science score was higher than the average score in 23 of the 33 other participating countries in 2015, lower than the average score in 5 countries, and not measurably different from the average score in the remaining 5 countries (table 602.30). The 5 countries that outperformed the United States in eighth-grade science were Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, Singapore, and Slovenia.
Public schools in Florida had an average fourth-grade science score (549) that was higher than the TIMSS scale centerpoint but was not measurably different from the U.S. national average (table 602.20). At grade 8, Florida had a public school average score (508) that was not measurably different from the TIMSS scale centerpoint but was lower than the U.S. national average in science (table 602.30).
The TIMSS Advanced assessment measures the advanced mathematics and physics achievement of students in their final year of secondary school who are taking or have taken advanced courses (table 602.35). In TIMSS Advanced, the U.S. average advanced mathematics score (485) and physics score (437) in 2015 were lower than the TIMSS Advanced scale centerpoint of 500.
Reading Literacy at Grade 4
The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) has conducted international assessments of fourth-grade reading literacy in 2001, 2006, and 2011. In 2011, PIRLS participants consisted of 40 countries as well as a number of subnational education systems. Examples of subnational participants include the cities of Hong Kong and Taipei, the public school system of the U.S. state of Florida, several Canadian provinces, Northern Ireland and England within the United Kingdom, and the Flemish community in Belgium. PIRLS scores are reported on a scale from 0 to 1, 000, with the scale average set at 500.
On the 2011 PIRLS, U.S. fourth-graders had an average reading literacy score of 556 (table 602.10). The U.S. average score in 2011 was 14 points higher than in 2001 and 16 points higher than in 2006. In all 3 assessment years, the U.S. average score was higher than the PIRLS scale average.
In 2011, the average reading literacy score of fourth-graders in the United States was higher than the average score in 33 of the 39 other participating countries, lower than the average score in 3 countries, and not measurably different from the average in the remaining 3 countries. The 3 countries that outperformed the United States on the 2011 PIRLS were the Russian Federation, Finland, and Singapore. Public school students in Florida scored higher than both the PIRLS scale average and the U.S. national average.
In the United States, the 2011 average reading literacy score for females (562) was higher than the average score for males (551). In 34 of the 39 other participating countries, the average score for females was also higher than the average score for males, while there was no measurable difference between females' and males' average scores in the remaining 5 countries.
Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy at Age 15
The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) assesses 15-year-old students' application of reading, mathematics, and science literacy to problems within a real-life context. In 2015, PISA assessed students in the 35 OECD countries as well as in a number of other education systems. Some subnational entities participated as separate education systems, including the U.S. states of Massachusetts and North Carolina. Results for individual U.S. states are based on public school students only, while U.S. national results are based on both public and private school students. PISA scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000.
On the 2015 PISA assessment, U.S. 15-year-olds' average score in reading literacy was 497, which was not measurably different from the OECD average of 493 (table 602.50). The average reading literacy score in the United States was lower than the average score in 11 of the 34 other OECD countries, higher than the average score in 13 of the other OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average score in 10 of the OECD countries. The average reading literacy score of public school students in Massachusetts (527) was higher than both the U.S. average and the OECD average, while the average score in North Carolina (500) was not measurably different from either the U.S. average or the OECD average. In all participating education systems, females outperformed males in reading literacy (table 602.40). The U.S. gender gap in reading (20 points) was not measurably different from the OECD average gap but was smaller than the gaps in 12 other OECD countries.
In mathematics literacy, U.S. 15-year-olds' average score of 470 on the 2015 PISA assessment was lower than the OECD average score of 490 (table 602.60). The average mathematics literacy score in the United States was lower than the average in 27 of the 34 other OECD countries, higher than the average in 4 OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average in 3 OECD countries. The average mathematics literacy score of public school students in Massachusetts (500) was higher than the U.S. average but was not measurably different from the OECD average, while the average score in North Carolina (471) was not measurably different from the U.S. average but was lower than the OECD average. In 18 OECD countries, including the United States, males outperformed females in mathematics literacy (table 602.40). The U.S. gender gap in favor of males in mathematics (9 points) was not measurably different from the OECD average gap.
In science literacy, U.S. 15-year-olds' average score of 496 on the 2015 PISA assessment was not measurably different from the OECD average score of 493 (table 602.70). The average science literacy score in the United States was lower than the average in 12 OECD countries, higher than the average in 10 OECD countries, and not measurably different from the average in 12 OECD countries. The average science literacy score of public school students in Massachusetts (529) was higher than both the U.S. average and the OECD average. The average score in North Carolina (502) was not measurably different from either the U.S. average or the OECD average. In 15 OECD countries, including the United States, males outperformed females in science literacy. In 4 OECD countries, females outperformed males in science literacy. The U.S. gender gap in favor of males in science (7 points) was not measurably different from the OECD average gap.
Educational Attainment
In 2015, the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds who had completed high school varied among reporting OECD countries (table 603.10).1 The OECD country reporting the highest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds who had completed high school was the Czech Republic (93 percent), followed by Estonia, Poland, and the Slovak Republic (all at 91 percent). High school completers made up 90 percent of 25- to 64-year-olds in 2 OECD countries (Canada and the United States), and 12 OECD countries reported that high school completers made up 80 to 88 percent of 25- to 64-year-olds. The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of high school completers among 25- to 64-year-olds was Mexico (36 percent), followed by Turkey (37 percent) and then Portugal (45 percent).
In 2015, the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with a postsecondary degree (i.e., any degree at the associate's level or above) also varied among OECD countries reporting data for this level of educational attainment (table 603.20).2 The OECD country reporting the highest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with a postsecondary degree was Canada (55 percent), followed by Japan (50 percent), the Republic of Korea (45 percent), and the United States (45 percent). An additional 12 OECD countries reported that more than 35 percent of their 25- to 64-year-olds had a postsecondary degree. The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with a postsecondary degree was Mexico (16 percent), followed by Italy and Turkey (both at 18 percent).
Among younger adults (those 25 to 34 years old) in reporting OECD countries, the percentage with a postsecondary degree also varied in 2015 (table 603.20 and figure 28). The OECD country reporting the highest percentage of younger adults with a postsecondary degree was the Republic of Korea (69 percent), followed by Japan (60 percent) and Canada (59 percent). More than 35 percent of younger adults had a postsecondary degree in 21 additional countries, including the United States (47 percent). The OECD country reporting the lowest percentage of younger adults with a degree in 2015 was Mexico (21 percent), followed by Italy (25 percent) and Turkey (28 percent).
Degrees
In 2014, more than half of all postsecondary degrees (i.e., all degrees at the associate's level or above) were awarded to women in 23 of the 25 OECD countries reporting a total percentage awarded to women that included degrees across all fields (table 603.60). However, the percentage of degrees awarded to women varied by field. For example, in 29 of the 32 countries reporting 2014 data for the field of education, at least 70 percent of education degrees were awarded to women. In contrast, in 14 of the 32 countries reporting 2014 data for the combined field of engineering, manufacturing, and construction, less than 25 percent of these degrees were awarded to women.
The percentages of bachelor's degrees that were awarded in mathematics, science, and engineering fields—including life science, physical science, mathematics and statistics, computer science, engineering, manufacturing, and construction—varied across the 33 OECD countries that reported these data for 2014 (table 603.70). Two of the reporting OECD countries awarded 30 percent or more of their bachelor's degrees in mathematics, science, and engineering fields in 2014: Germany (36 percent) and the Republic of Korea (33 percent). Two countries awarded less than 15 percent of their bachelor's degrees in mathematics, science, and engineering fields: the Netherlands (14 percent) and Norway (13 percent). In 2014, the United States awarded 18 percent of its bachelor's degrees in mathematics, science, and engineering fields, a lower percentage than most other reporting OECD countries.
The percentages of graduate degrees awarded in mathematics, science, and engineering fields varied widely across OECD countries in 2014. In most of the 33 OECD countries that reported 2014 data, a higher percentage of degrees were awarded in these fields at the doctoral level than at the master's level. At the master's level, 3 of the reporting OECD countries awarded 30 percent or more of their degrees in mathematics, science, and engineering fields in 2014: Japan (42 percent), Germany (32 percent), and Sweden (30 percent). Seven reporting OECD countries awarded 15 percent or less of their master's degrees in these fields: Turkey (15 percent), the Netherlands (14 percent), the United States (13 percent), Israel (11 percent), Mexico (11 percent), Luxembourg (11 percent), and Chile (6 percent). At the doctoral level, 5 of the reporting OECD countries awarded more than half of their degrees in mathematics, science, and engineering fields: France (61 percent), Israel (58 percent), Estonia (54 percent), Chile (51 percent), and Sweden (50 percent). The only OECD country that reported awarding less than 30 percent of its doctor's degrees in mathematics, science, and engineering fields was Mexico (28 percent). The United States awarded 42 percent of its doctor's degrees in mathematics, science, and engineering fields in 2014, which was lower than the OECD average of 44 percent.
Skills of Adults
The Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) assesses the cognitive skills of adults in three areas—literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments—that are seen as key to facilitating the social and economic participation of adults in advanced economies. The discussion below focuses on the areas of literacy and numeracy. PIAAC 2012 results are available for adults in 24 participating countries and regions, including 22 that belong to the OECD. Participating countries and regions are referred to collectively as "education systems" in the Digest. The education systems that participated in the 2012 assessment were primarily countries, but also included three subnational education systems: Northern Ireland and England within the United Kingdom, and the Flemish community in Belgium. PIAAC literacy and numeracy scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 500.
In 2012, average scores on the PIAAC literacy scale for adults ages 25 to 65 ranged from 249 in Italy and 250 in Spain to 296 in Japan (table 604.10). U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds had an average PIAAC literacy score of 269, which was not measurably different from the OECD average score of 271. Across education systems, adults' average literacy scores generally increased with higher levels of educational attainment. In the United States, for example, 25- to 65-year-olds whose highest level of attainment was high school completion had an average literacy score of 259, compared with an average score of 302 for those who had a bachelor's or higher degree. The literacy score for U.S. high school completers in the 25- to 65-year-old age group was lower than the OECD average of 268 for high school completers in this age group, while the literacy score for U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds with a bachelor's or higher degree was not measurably different from the OECD average of 302 for those with a bachelor's or higher degree.
On the PIAAC numeracy scale, 2012 average scores for adults ages 25 to 65 ranged from 245 in Spain and 246 in Italy to 289 in Japan. U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds had an average PIAAC numeracy score of 254, which was lower than the OECD average score of 268. Across education systems, adults' average numeracy scores generally increased with higher levels of educational attainment. In the United States, for example, 25- to 65-year-olds whose highest level of attainment was high school completion had an average numeracy score of 241, compared with an average score of 293 for those who had a bachelor's or higher degree. The numeracy score for U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds who had completed only high school was lower than the OECD average of 265 for those with the same level of educational attainment. Likewise, the average numeracy score of U.S. 25- to 65-year-olds with a bachelor's or higher degree was lower than the OECD average of 303 for those with a bachelor's or higher degree.
Finances
In 2013, expenditures per full-time-equivalent (FTE) student (expressed in current U.S. dollars) varied by level of education and across OECD countries. At the combined elementary and secondary level of education, expenditures per FTE student were $11,800 in the United States, which was higher than the OECD average of $9,200 (table 605.10). In addition to the United States, 7 of the other OECD countries that reported finance data for this level of education had expenditures of at least $11,000 per FTE student in 2013. Specifically, Luxembourg spent $19,500 per elementary/secondary student; Switzerland spent $17,700; Norway spent $14,300; Austria spent $13,300; Belgium spent $11,600; the United Kingdom spent $11,500; and Denmark spent $11,100. At the higher education level, the United States spent $27,900 per FTE student in 2013, which was higher than the OECD average of $14,800. In addition to the United States, 8 of the other countries that reported higher education finance data had expenditures of over $17,000 per FTE student at the higher education level in 2013: the United Kingdom ($25,700), Switzerland ($25,100), Sweden ($23,200), Norway ($20,400), the Netherlands ($18,900), Australia ($18,300), Finland ($17,900), and Japan ($17,900). These expenditures were adjusted to U.S. dollars using the purchasing-power-parity (PPP) index. This index is considered more stable and comparable than indexes using currency exchange rates; for more information, see appendix B.
Total public and private direct expenditures on all education levels as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) varied across the 33 reporting OECD countries in 2013, ranging from 3.5 percent in Luxembourg to 6.7 percent in the United Kingdom (table 605.20 and figure 29). In the United States, total direct expenditures on education amounted to 6.2 percent of GDP, which higher than the OECD average of 5.2 percent of GDP. A comparison of public direct expenditures on education as a percentage of GDP shows that public investment in education in 2013 ranged from 3.1 percent in Hungary to 6.2 percent in Norway. In the United States, the public direct expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP was 4.2 percent, which was slightly lower than the OECD average of 4.3 percent of GDP.
1 Although 2015 high school attainment data were reported for Israel, no standard errors were available for these data, which means that the data cannot be compared with data from other countries. Therefore, Israel is omitted from this discussion.
2 Although 2015 postsecondary degree attainment data were reported for Israel, no standard errors were available for these data, which means that the data cannot be compared with data from other countries. Therefore, Israel is omitted from this discussion.
