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NPSASProfile of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary Education Institutions: 1992-93


Foreword

This report profiles undergraduates enrolled in postsecondary education for the academic year 1992-93. It relies on data from the 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), the third in a series of surveys conducted by the U.S. Department of Education. The NPSAS surveys are designed to represent all postsecondary students enrolled during the survey year and to provide detailed information about postsecondary students' financial aid and educational expenses.

This essay is taken from a larger report entitled: Profile of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary Institutions: 1992-93 (With an Essay on Undergraduates at Risk) NCES # 96-237. In addition to this essay on Undergraduates at Risk, the larger report includes 59 tables in a compendia. These tables provide comprehensive information about enrollment patterns, programs of study, student characteristics, financial aid receipt and employment, undergraduates' educational aspirations, and their community service participation. If you would like to download the full report you may click.

If you would like to receive a paper copy of this report, please e-mail Aurora D'Amico at Aurora.D'Amico@ed.gov.

All estimates presented in the report were produced using the NPSAS:93 Data Analysis System (DAS). The DAS is a microcomputer application that allows users to specify and generate their own tables from the NPSAS:93 data. This software system produces design-adjusted standard errors necessary for testing the statistical significance of differences shown in the tables.

This essay was prepared by Laura J. Horn and Mark D. Premo of MPR Associates, Inc and Andrew G. Malizio of NCES.

Table of Contents



  • Foreword

  • List of Tables

  • List of Figures


  • Undergraduates at Risk

  • Purpose and Organization of Report

  • Individual Risk Factors

  • Delayed Enrollment
  • Part-Time Attendance
  • Financial Independence
  • Undergraduates with Dependents; Single Parents
  • Students Working Full Time While Enrolled
  • Students Who Did Not Graduate from High School

  • Multiple Risk Factors


    Risk Factors and Persistence in 1992-93


    Summary and Conclusions



    List of Tables


    1. Percentage of undergraduates with specific risk factors, by risk factor and level of institution: 1992-93

    2. Percentage of undergraduates according to whether or not they delayed enrollment into postsecondary education, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93

    3. Percentage distribution of undergraduate enrollment according to attendance patterns, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93

    4. Percentage of undergraduates according to dependency status, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93

    5. Percentage distribution of undergraduates according to number of dependents (excluding spouse) and the percentage of undergraduate single parents, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93

    6. Percentage distribution of undergraduates according to the number of hours worked per week while enrolled, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93

    7. Percentage distribution of undergraduates according to their high school degree or equivalency status, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93

    8. Percentage of undergraduates according to the number of their risk factors, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93

    9. Among undergraduates enrolled in fall 1992 who also reported plans to be enrolled in the following year (1993-94), the percentage distribution according to average number of months enrolled, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93

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    List of Figures


    1. Percentage distribution of undergraduate enrollment according to the highest award offering of institution, by age: 1992-93

    2. Percentage distribution of undergraduates, by highest award offering of institution for each risk factor: 1992-93

    3. Percentage distribution of undergraduates' attendance status, by highest award offering of institution: 1992-93

    4. Percentage distribution of undergraduates in various degree programs, by attendance status: 1992-93

    5. Percentage distribution of undergraduates with and without dependents, by highest award offering of institution: 1992-93

    6. Percentage distribution of single parents and independent non-single parents, by income level: 1992-93

    7. Percentage distribution of independent undergraduates receiving financial aid, by employment status: 1992-93

    8. Percentage distribution of undergraduate enrollment according to highest offering level of institution, by high school graduation status: 1992-93


    Undergraduate at Risk

    Not since the 1970s has the typical student education (PSE) been a recent high school graduate enrolled full time in a 4-year college or university, working toward a bachelor's degree. On the contrary, these students represented about one-third of undergraduates enrolled in 1992-93.1 During that academic year, about the same proportion of undergraduates were enrolled in 2-year institutions as were enrolled in 4-year colleges and universities (figure 1).2 In addition, about 6 percent of undergraduates were enrolled in less-than-2-year institutions (primarily private, for-profit trade schools) that typically offer programs of short duration (e.g., less than a year), resulting in a vocational certificate in such fields as cosmetology and administrative/secretarial skills.

    Figure 1 Percentage distribution of undergraduate enrollment according to the highest award offering of institution, by age: 1992-93


    Figure 1

    NOTE: The numbers at the top of the bars are the percentages of all undergraduates enrolled at that type of institution. The patterns inside the bars are the proportions of younger and older students within the institution type.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.


    While so called traditional students represent a minority of undergraduates currently enrolled in postsecondary education, they are more successful in attaining bachelor's degrees than their less traditional peers. Traditional students are often better prepared academically to enter college,3 and they generally have adequate financial support from their families and financial aid programs.4 Such resources allow these students to concentrate on their studies full time, freeing them from the financial and time constraints often imposed on less traditional students.

    As the undergraduate population has expanded to include more women, older students, minorities, and students from low income families, so ha of students at risk of not completing their educational program.5 Such students may encounter a range of economic, social, or cultural barriers to persistence and attainment in postsecondary education attendance. Often they have families to support, they may work full time while they are enrolled, and some have to commute long distances either to their jobs or to school. These and other external constraints may conflict with postsecondary education attendance and persistence. And for the students affected, services such as affordable child care and flexible class schedules are a necessity. In fact, researchers such as Bean and Metzner have argued that alleviating environmental stress factors plays a more important role in helping nontraditional students realize their educational goals than it does for more traditional students (i.e., those who enroll immediately in colleges or universities and who attend full time for the duration of their enrollment).6 These same researchers also point out that such assistance may compensate for nontraditional students' poor academic preparation or lack of social integration key variables related to traditional students' persistence and attainment as illustrated in Tinto's model of attrition.7

    In addition to the financial and social problems less traditional students may encounter, they often have postsecondary education enrollment patterns known to reduce the chances of completing a degree more specifically, the decision to delay their postsecondary education and, once enrolled, to attend on a part-time basis.8 However, it is also true that these enrollment choices may be the only feasible option for students either lacking the time or resources to attend full time, or the academic preparation needed to immediately enroll in postsecondary education. In addition, part-time enrollment in low cost institutions, such as community colleges, offers a wide range of opportunities for both personal and professional growth. Nevertheless, while such attendance may offer educational opportunities to individuals who might not attend otherwise, part-time attendance does increase students' chances of not completing their postsecondary program.

    To design appropriate programs and services for undergraduates likely to be at risk of leaving postsecondary education, it is important to know how many students are affected and where they are enrolled. It is also important to determine how risk factors are interrelated, first, because many students may face multiple risks, and second, because the ways in which these risks are interrelated may affect the kinds and amount of support students need.

    Finally, it should be noted that the notion of risk in this report refers only to students' risk of not completing a postsecondary program. This does not mean that postsecondary education offers no benefits to students who do not complete a degree. Indeed, students may benefit in many ways that improve their quality of life. Nevertheless, the evidence is clear and compelling that students who complete a college degree, especially a bachelor's degree, experience greater occupational and economic benefits than students who do not attain a degree.9

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    Purpose and Organization of Report

    This report profiles all undergraduates enrolled in U.S. postsecondary institutions in 1992-93 and the essay that follows focuses on undergraduates with risk factors and enrollment patterns known to adversely affect persistence and attainment. Data from the 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93) were used for this study. This survey is designed to represent students enrolled in all postsecondary institutions and to provide detailed information about postsecondary students' financial aid and educational expenses.

    For this analysis, the NPSAS:93 variables used as indicators of risk included not enrolling in postsecondary education the same year as graduating from high school (i.e. delayed enrollment); attending part time; being financially independent of parents (as defined by financial aid regulations); having dependents other than a spouse (either children or elders); and working full time while enrolled in postsecondary education. Since the NPSAS survey has a postsecondary focus, variables that measure students' academic preparation for postsecondary education are not available with the exception of whether or not they graduated from high school with a traditional high school diploma. In this report, we also examine this relatively small, but not insignificant, group of undergraduates who were not traditional high school graduates.

    This essay addresses students at risk of attrition in a number of ways: first, by examining the prevalence of each risk factor individually and determining where students affected are enrolled (figure 2 shows the distribution of undergraduates with each risk factor according to the level of institution in which they were enrolled); second, by determining how risk factors are interrelated and which students have multiple risk factors (as illustrated in table 1, the risk factors are strongly interrelated and most students have more than one); and third, by examining the association between risk factors and 1-year persistence rates.

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    Table 1 Percentage of undergraduates with specific risk factors, by risk factor and level of institution: 1992-93

                      Delayed   Enrolled   Financially   Has       Works   Single   Not a high
                     enrollment part time  independent dependents full time  parent school grad.
    
    Total 42.7 53.7 52.1 22.2 37.5 7.6 6.4 Risk factors Delayed enrollment 100.0 63.6 73.4 32.2 48.3 11.3 5.5 Enrolled part time 50.4 100.0 67.4 29.2 52.6 8.2 7.4 Financially independent 61.4 69.7 100.0 43.0 52.3 14.6 9.8 Has dependents 63.8 70.4 100.0 100.0 52.3 34.6 12.6 Works full time 49.8 82.0 75.9 35.1 100.0 8.9 6.8 Single parent 68.9 58.0 100.0 100.0 44.1 100.0 18.2 Not a high school grad. 65.8 62.5 79.6 44.0 40.9 21.2 100.0 Level of institution Less-than-2-year 67.4 30.2 73.6 42.0 29.9 23.3 26.1 2-year 52.1 73.6 62.5 28.0 46.7 8.9 8.4 4-year 30.9 36.5 38.5 13.7 27.4 4.2 1.9

    NOTE: The total row shows the percentage of all undergraduates with each risk factor (i.e., 42.7 percent of undergraduates delayed enrollment). For each risk factor under the total row (row categories), the table shows the percentage of undergraduates with that risk factor who had each of the other risk factors. For example, the row labeled Delayed enrollment should read: Among undergraduates who delayed their enrollment, 63.6 percent enrolled part time; 73.4 percent were financially independent; 32.1 percent had dependents; and so on.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



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    Figure 2 Percentage distribution of undergraduates, by highest award offering of institution for each risk factor: 1992-93


    Figure 2

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



    Individual Risk Factors

    Delayed Enrollment

    The timing of enrollment clearly affects the benefits of postsecondary education. To the extent that postsecondary education increases long-range earning potential and social status, the sooner students attend, the sooner they can realize these economic and social advantages. Delaying postsecondary education, however, does more than just postpone the benefits afforded by such education, it also increases the risk of dropping out.10 Studies have found that even among students with similar educational goals and those enrolled in the same types of institutions, those who delay their enrollment are substantially less likely to earn a bachelor's degree than students who enter immediately after high school.11

    Among undergraduates enrolled in postsecondary education in 1992-93, about 43 percent experienced some delay (table 2).12 Delaying enrollment varied according to attendance status and the degree program students were pursuing. Students who attended part time during any period of their enrollment were more likely to have delayed their enrollment than students enrolled full time for a full academic year (at least 9 months). Undergraduates pursuing shorter term awards, including certificates or associate's degrees, were more likely to have delayed their enrollment than students enrolled in a bachelor's degree program.

    Consistent with the patterns observed for degree programs was the association between delayed enrollment and the highest offering of an institution: students attending less-than-2-year institutions were more likely to have delayed their enrollment (67 percent) than were students in 2-year institutions (52 percent); in turn, students in 2-year institutions were more likely to have delayed than those in 4-year colleges and universities (31 percent).

    Whether or not students delayed their enrollment was also related to their family obligations, financial resources, and having disabilities. For example, students who were married delayed more often than those who never married, and students with dependents were more likely to delay than those without dependents. Students with disabilities delayed more often than nondisabled students,13 and those in the lower income quartile were more likely to delay than students in the upper income quartile.

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    Table 2 Percentage of undergraduates according to whether or not they delayed enrollment into postsecondary education, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93


                                                    Did not delay
                             Delayed enrollment      enrollment
    
    Total 42.7 57.3 Level of institution Less-than-2-year 67.4 32.6 2-year 52.1 47.9 4 years or more 30.9 69.1 Marital status Not married 35.3 64.7 Married 58.4 41.6 Divorced/separated/widowed 73.0 27.0 Number of dependents None 36.7 63.3 One or more 63.8 36.2 Income percentile ranking Lowest quartile 46.1 53.9 Middle quartiles 42.6 57.4 Highest quartile 36.7 63.3 Disability status Not disabled 36.1 63.9 Disabled 52.3 47.7 Attendance patterns 1992-93 Full-time, full-year 27.5 72.5 Full-time, part-year 48.8 51.2 Any part-time 50.5 49.5 Undergraduate program Vocational certificate 58.8 41.2 Associate's degree 50.8 49.2 Bachelor's degree 28.9 71.1 Other undergraduate 50.5 49.5 Institution type Public Less-than-2-year 71.0 29.0 2-year 51.8 48.2 4-year nondoctorate-granting 34.3 65.7 4-year doctorate-granting 26.4 73.6 Private, not-for-profit Less-than-4-year 52.0 48.0 4-year nondoctorate-granting 36.5 63.5 4-year doctorate-granting 24.9 75.2 Private, for-profit 61.9 38.0

    NOTE: Delayed enrollment is defined as students who did not enter postsecondary education the same year they graduated from high school.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.


    Part-Time Attendance

    In the last 25 years, part-time attendance in postsecondary education has increased dramatically. The number of part-time undergraduates more than doubled between 1970 and 1990, from 2.1 million to 5 million students.14 In contrast, full-time enrollment increased by only one-third during this same time period. As a proportion of total enrollment, part-time enrollment increased from 28 percent to 42 percent during this period. Most of the growth, however, occurred between 1970 and 1980; thus, part-time students have been a stable part of the undergraduate population for more than 10 years. The growth in part-time enrollment has paralleled that of older students who are much more likely to attend part time than traditional college-age students.15

    While part-time attendance expands the educational opportunities of students who either lack the resources or the time to attend full time, time required to earn a degree as well as the risk of dropping or stopping out. 16

    In 1992-93, attending full time was still predominant in 4-year colleges and universities (figure 3). On the other hand, the majority of students in 2-year institutions (74 percent) attended part time, and these students accounted for about two-thirds of all part-time undergraduates. 17 Part-time attendance was relatively evenly distributed between students attending part time for a full academic year (at least 9 months) and those attending part time, part year (26 and 28 percent, respectively) (table 3).18

    As would be expected, part-time attendance (both full-and part-year, but especially part-year) was most common among students with outside demands on their time. Married students, those with dependents, and students working full time while enrolled were particularly likely to attend on a part-time basis.

    On the other hand, even though women enrolled in postsecondary education tended to be older than men and were almost twice as likely to have dependents (29 percent versus 16 percent),19 they were only marginally more likely to attend part time (e.g., 27 percent compared with 24 percent attending part time for a full year). This pattern reflects the fact that women were more likely than men to attend private, for-profit institutions, which tend to offer short, concentrated (full-time) programs (9 percent versus 6 percent).20

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    Figure 3 Percentage distribution of undergraduates' attendance status, by highest award offering of institution: 1992-93


    Figure 3

    NOTE: Students in less-than-2-year institutions who are enrolled full time, part year include those who may have completed programs lasting less than 1 year.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



    Because most part-time students were enrolled in less-than-4-year institutions, they were primarily pursuing vocational certificates or associate's degrees (which can be vocational or academic). For example, 52 percent of students attending part time for a full year were pursuing associate's degrees, and about 12 percent were pursuing vocational certificates (figure 4). Among part-time, part-year students, 55 percent and 15 percent, respectively, were pursuing associate's degrees and vocational certificates.

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    Table 3 Percentage distribution of undergraduate enrollment according to attendance patterns, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93


                           Full-time,      Full-time, Part-time,  Part-time,
                            full-year      part-year  full-year   part-year
    
    Total 32.8 13.4 25.6 28.1 Level of institution Less-than-2-year 26.7 43.0 12.0 18.2 2-year 16.0 10.4 32.7 41.0 4 years or more 50.8 12.7 20.2 16.4 Gender Male 35.0 14.0 24.1 27.0 Female 31.1 12.9 26.9 29.0 Marital status Not married 39.0 14.4 23.1 23.5 Married 13.6 9.9 33.4 43.0 Divorced/separated/ widowed 19.7 23.1 22.5 34.7 Number of dependents None 37.8 13.3 24.0 24.8 One or more 15.8 13.8 31.5 39.0 Age as of 12/31/92 23 years or younger 47.6 15.1 19.6 17.7 24 29 years 19.4 13.3 31.5 35.8 30 years or older 11.9 10.1 34.0 44.0 Average hours worked/week while enrolled Not employed 37.5 15.9 24.1 22.5 1 20 hours 49.3 13.3 19.7 17.7 21 34 hours 34.4 13.2 28.3 24.1 35 hours or more 10.9 7.1 34.7 47.4 Undergraduate program Vocational certificate 23.6 25.3 22.4 28.7 Associate's degree 18.3 10.2 34.4 37.2 Bachelor's degree 53.9 12.7 19.5 14.0 Other undergraduate 13.3 14.5 24.0 48.2 Institutional type Public Less-than-2-year 19.4 20.6 20.5 39.5 2-year 14.9 8.7 34.0 42.4 4-year nondoctorate-granting 45.0 11.7 24.2 19.2 4-year doctorate-granting 54.1 13.1 18.7 14.1 Private, not-for-profit Less-than-4-year 23.9 18.3 25.6 32.2 4-year nondoctorate-granting 46.8 13.9 20.5 18.9 4-year doctorate-granting 63.5 10.3 15.3 10.8 Private, for-profit 30.7 44.4 10.4 14.5

    NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.


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    Figure 4 Percentage distribution of undergraduates in various degree programs, by attendance status: 1992-93


    Figure 4

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



    Financial Independence

    Whether or not a student is financially dependent on his or her parents is determined when assessing the student's need for financial aid. 21 dependent students are expected to pay a portion of their child's education; the amount is based on their income and assets as well as the cost of attendance. Parents of independent students, on the other hand, are not required to pay any educational costs, though some parents do provide financial assistance.

    In 1992-93, roughly half of the undergraduate population (52 percent) was considered independent (table 4). Because the main criterion for independence is age (students 24 or older are automatically considered independent), most independent students were older. However, 13 percent of students 23 or younger were also independent. Younger independent students are often married and have dependents of their own.22 Added to these responsibilities, younger independent students might find it particularly difficult to meet their educational expenses since they often have less employment experience than their older peers and usually receive less parental financial support than dependent students of the same age.

    Whether or not undergraduates were independent varied according to the length of the degree program offered by the institutions: the shorter the program, the higher the percentage of independent students. Furthermore, in addition to a higher proportion of independent students among those attending less-than-2-year institutions, the independent students were much more likely to be under the age of 24.23

    Because female undergraduates were more likely to be older and to have dependents in 1992-93 than their male counterparts, they were also more likely to be independent (56 percent versus 48 percent). Among racial ethnic groups, nearly 70 percent of American Indians/Alaskan Natives were independent, more than any other racial ethnic group (41 percent to 59 percent).

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    Table 4 Percentage of undergraduates according to dependency status, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93


                                  Dependent        Independent
    
    Total 47.9 52.1 Level of institution Less-than-2-year 26.5 73.6 2-year 37.5 62.5 4 years or more 61.5 38.5 Gender Male 52.4 47.6 Female 44.4 55.6 Age as of 12/31/92 23 years or younger 86.9 13.1 24 29 years 0.0 100.0 30 years or older 0.0 100.0 Race ethnicity American Indian/Alaskan Native 30.1 69.9 Asian/Pacific Islander 59.2 40.8 Black, non-Hispanic 41.0 59.0 Hispanic 48.5 51.5 White, non-Hispanic 48.0 52.0

    NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



    Undergraduates with Dependents; Single Parents

    Students often enter or return to postsecondary education in order to increase their earning potential so that they can better support their families. At the same time, family responsibilities often conflict with attendance and persistence. A sick child, for instance, can result in the parent missing classes or, in some cases, having to withdraw temporarily from school. Such absences may undermine the parents' ability to complete their postsecondary education.

    About one-fifth of 1992-93 undergraduates (22 percent) were responsible for dependents other than a spouse (table 5). Moreover, students with serious academic limitations (i.e., those who were not traditional high school graduates) were more likely to have dependents than traditional high school graduates. Furthermore, undergraduates with disabilities were more likely to have dependents than those with no disabilities.

    Because of the level of commitment required to attend postsecondary education and care for dependents, it may not be surprising to see students who are responsible for dependents in shorter term postsecondary programs more often than those without dependents (figure 5). For example, 60 percent of students with dependents, compared with 44 percent of those without dependents, attended 2-year institutions. Similarly, 12 percent of students with dependents, compared with 5 percent without dependents, were enrolled in less-than-2-year institutions.

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    Figure 5 Percentage distribution of undergraduates with and without dependents, by highest award offering of institution: 1992-93


    Figure 5

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



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    Table 5 Percentage distribution of undergraduates according to number of dependents (excluding spouse) and the percentage of undergraduate single parents, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93


                                  Number of dependents       Single
                              None       One    Two or more  parent
    
    Total 77.8 9.4 12.8 7.6 Level of institution Less-than-2-year 58.0 17.6 24.4 23.3 2-year 72.0 11.9 16.0 8.9 4 years or more 86.3 5.8 7.9 4.2 Gender Male 84.5 6.6 8.9 2.9 Female 72.3 11.7 16.0 11.4 Disability status Not disabled 76.5 9.8 13.7 7.1 Disabled 68.3 14.3 17.5 10.1 Institutional type Public Less-than-2-year 65.6 11.0 23.5 13.4 2-year 72.0 11.8 16.2 8.6 4-year nondoctorate-granting 83.2 7.5 9.2 5.2 4-year doctorate-granting 90.9 4.0 5.1 2.8 Private, not-for-profit Less-than-4-year 69.1 12.1 18.8 12.8 4-year nondoctorate-granting 79.7 7.7 12.6 6.1 4-year doctorate-granting 91.2 4.0 4.8 2.6 Private, for-profit 63.0 17.0 20.1 20.6 Race ethnicity American Indian/Alaskan Native 63.5 15.6 20.9 16.0 Asian/Pacific Islander 86.6 7.0 6.4 2.6 Black, non-Hispanic 68.8 14.8 16.4 19.1 Hispanic 74.0 10.5 15.5 9.2 White, non-Hispanic 78.6 8.9 12.6 6.2 High school degree or equivalency status High school degree 79.5 8.8 11.7 6.5 GED or high school equivalent* 56.0 17.7 26.3 20.1 No high school credential 55.7 17.0 27.2 24.1

    *Passed tests of General Educational Development or high school equivalent.

    NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



    Undergraduates with perhaps the greatest obstacles to their postsecondary education are single parents. The problems encountered by students with dependents are compounded for those with no spousal support. Approximately 8 percent of undergraduates reported being single parents; and women were much more likely to be single parents than men (11 percent versus 3 percent) (table 5). Among racial ethnic groups, black, non-Hispanic and American Indian/Alaskan Native students were more likely to be single parents than either white, non- Hispanic or Asian/Pacific Islander students.

    Single parents were particularly likely to have very low incomes: 23 percent had incomes under $5,000, and an additional 26 percent had incomes under $10,000 (figure 6). In addition, single parents were about four times more likely than other students to choose short-term vocational postsecondary programs.24 For example, about 19 percent of single parents were enrolled in less-than-2-year institutions, compared with 5 percent of other independent students.

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    Figure 6 Percentage distribution of single parents and independent nonsingle parents, by income level:1992-93


    Figure 6

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.


    Students Working Full Time While Enrolled

    Students who work full time may do so for a variety of reasons. For example, they may be employed in career-level jobs and are seeking to enhance their skills. Alternatively, they may not yet have a career job but need to work full time in order to support their families and pay for their education. Whatever reasons students may have for working so much, combining full-time work and postsecondary education may increase their risk of attrition.25

    In 1992-93, nearly 40 percent of undergraduates reported working full time during some period of their enrollment (table 6). Because of the close association between working full time and attending school part time about 80 percent of students working full time attended part time (see table 3) the patterns seen for the former parallel the latter. Therefore, students enrolled in 2-year institutions were more likely to work full time than those in either less-than-2-year or 4-year institutions (47 percent, compared with 30 percent and 27 percent, respectively). Likewise, students 24 or older and students with dependents were more likely to work full time than younger students or those without dependents.

    Students may also work full time to reduce their need for education loans. That is, net of their financial aid grants, students may make the decision to work more hours rather than incur additional (or any) debt to pay for their education. Among 1992-93 undergraduates, independent students working full time were about half as likely as students working part time to receive any financial aid (25 percent versus 47 percent).26 At the same time, these students were only about one-third as likely as students working part time to borrow (7 percent versus 25 percent) (figure 7). This finding suggests that some students may have chosen full-time work in lieu of borrowing.27

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    Table 6 Percentage distribution of undergraduates according to the number of hours worked per week while enrolled, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93


                                       Worked     Worked   Worked
                               Not      1 20       21 34  35 hours
                            employed    hours      hours   or more
    
    Total 20.6 26.0 15.9 37.5 Level of institution Less-than-2-year 42.0 15.2 13.0 29.9 2-year 18.7 18.7 15.9 46.7 4 years or more 20.4 36.0 16.2 27.4 Age as of 12/31/92 23 years or younger 20.2 37.8 20.7 21.2 24 29 years 17.6 15.5 13.9 53.0 30 years or older 23.2 11.7 8.7 56.5 Attendance patterns 1992-93 Full-time, full-year 25.7 42.6 18.1 13.5 Full-time, part-year 28.6 30.0 18.2 23.2 Any part-time 16.5 16.7 14.3 52.6 Number of dependents None 18.9 30.6 18.1 32.5 One or more 25.6 12.7 9.4 52.3

    NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



    Figure 7 Percentage distribution of independent undergraduates receiving financial aid, by employment status: 1992-93


    Figure 7

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.


    Students Who Did Not Graduate from High School

    About 6 percent of undergraduates enrolled in 1992-93 were not traditional high school graduates; most of these students were GED recipients (table 7). While this may seem like a small proportion of undergraduates, the fact that they are not as successful as traditional high school graduates in the labor market makes their success in postsecondary education all the more important.28 Moreover, in addition to their disadvantaged position in the labor market, undergraduates who were not traditional high school graduates were far more likely than traditional high school graduates to be single parents (e.g., 20 percent of GED recipients compared with 7 percent of high school graduates).29

    Due to the open admission policies in most less-than-4-year institutions, students who did not graduate from high school were enrolled almost in these institutions (figure 8). For example, most of the GED recipients were enrolled in the 2-year sector (65 percent). Among students with no high school credential, 42 percent were enrolled in less-than-2-year institutions and 54 percent attended 2-year institutions.

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    Table 7 Percentage distribution of undergraduates according to their high school degree or equivalency status, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93


                              High school  GED or high school   No high school
                               degree       equivalent*         credential
    
    Total 93.6 4.5 1.9 Level of institution Less-than-2-year 73.9 12.8 13.3 2-year 91.6 6.2 2.2 4 years or more 98.1 1.7 0.2 Marital status Not married 94.5 3.8 1.7 Married 91.3 6.5 2.2 Divorced/separated/widowed 80.1 13.2 6.7 Number of dependents None 95.5 3.2 1.4 One or more 87.3 8.9 3.8 Single parent status Not single parent 94.6 3.9 1.5 Single parent 81.8 12.1 6.1

    *Passed tests of General Educational Development or high school equivalent.

    NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.


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    Figure 8 Percentage distribution of undergraduate enrollment according to highest offering of institution, by high school graduation status: 1992-93


    Figure 8

    *Passed tests of General Educational Development or high school equivalent.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.


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    Multiple Risk Factors

    Many of the risk factors identified in this analysis are highly correlated, and most students had more than one (see table 1 for examples). To measure the extent to which undergraduates were affected, each student was assigned a score from 0 7 representing the sum of seven possible risk factors each had. For example, all single parents are, by definition, independent and have dependents. Thus, these students have a minimum of three risk factors (table 8). Similarly, almost all students who work full time also attend postsecondary education on a part-time basis, giving them at least two risk factors. While no attempt was made to weigh each risk factor (clearly, the individual impact of some are greater than others),30 the association of the risk factors makes them cluster together in multiples. For example, only about one-fifth of undergraduates had just one risk factor. These included about 18 percent of students attending part time (i.e., attending part time was the only risk factor associated with these students), 13 percent who delayed enrollment, 7 percent who worked full time, 5 percent who were independent, and 4 percent who were GED recipients (table 8). In contrast, the vast majority of GED recipients, students with dependents, and single parents had at least four risk factors (70 percent, 77 percent, and 92 percent, respectively).

    One of the most compelling results of this analysis is that the proportion of students with four or more risk factors is almost identical to that of students with no risk factors (22 percent versus 24 percent). Thus, undergraduates with considerable outside responsibilities that may seriously impede their progress in school are as numerous as those with no such responsibilities. Moreover, students with multiple risk factors were concentrated in less-than-4-year institutions. For example, about one-third of students enrolled in either less-than-2-year or 2-year institutions had four or more risk factors. The same was true for only 13 percent of undergraduates enrolled in 4-year institutions. In contrast, about 10 percent of students in less-than-4-year institutions had no risk factors, compared with 39 percent of those in 4-year colleges or universities.

    There was also a difference in the number of risk factors among students who had attained a bachelor's degree, compared with those at the same class level who had not attained this degree. That is, among students who were seniors in 1992-93, those who attained their bachelor's degree that year were more likely than seniors who had not yet attained their degree to have no risk factors (35 percent versus 24 percent), and they were about one-half as likely to have four or more risk factors (9 percent versus 17 percent). Additionally, among students enrolled in 4-year colleges, those in institutions that do not grant doctorate degrees (either public or private, not-for-profit) were more likely to have four or more risk factors than students in doctorate-granting institutions.

    Women were more likely than men to have four or more risk factors (26 percent versus 18 percent), as were students with disabilities (31 percent versus 25 percent). American Indian/Alaskan Native and black, non-Hispanic students were more likely to have four or more risk factors (35 percent and 31 percent, respectively) than either white, non- Hispanic students (22 percent) or Asians/Pacific Islanders (14 percent). Asians/Pacific Islanders were less likely than any other racial ethnic group to have four or more risk factors.

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    Table 8 Percentage of undergraduates according to the number of their risk factors,* by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93


                           No risk                              Four or
                           factors    One      Two     Three    more
    
    Total 23.5 19.7 16.5 18.0 22.4 Level of institution Less-than-2-year 9.8 15.5 23.3 20.2 31.2 2-year 9.3 17.3 18.3 23.6 31.5 4 years or more 38.7 22.5 14.0 12.2 12.5 Undergraduate class level (including graduation status) 1st year-freshman 18.9 19.2 16.6 18.4 26.9 2nd year-sophomore 25.2 19.3 16.2 18.6 20.8 3rd year-junior 35.4 21.1 14.8 12.5 16.2 4th year-senior (did not graduate) 24.4 20.2 18.9 19.4 17.2 (graduated) 34.9 26.5 17.2 12.2 9.1 Level unknown 2.1 6.6 14.4 38.0 38.9 Gender Male 24.6 22.3 17.9 17.2 18.0 Female 22.7 17.6 15.2 18.5 26.0 Dependency status Dependent 47.5 34.3 15.0 3.0 0.2 Independent 0.0 5.4 17.9 32.6 44.1 Number of dependents None 30.0 25.1 20.0 17.5 7.4 One or more 0.0 0.0 3.4 19.7 76.9 Single parent status Not single parent 25.3 21.2 17.7 18.7 17.0 Single parent 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 92.0 Delayed postsecondary enrollment Did not delay 40.8 24.7 13.5 13.1 7.8 Delayed 0.0 12.9 20.4 24.5 42.1 Disability status Not disabled 25.1 19.2 14.4 16.7 24.5 Disabled 13.5 16.3 16.7 22.5 31.0 Attendance pattern 1992-93 Full-time, full-year 57.8 21.0 11.3 5.5 4.4 Full-time, part-year 32.0 25.2 20.0 11.6 11.3 Part-time 0.0 17.5 18.8 27.3 36.3


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    Table 8 Percentage of undergraduates according to the number of their risk factors,* by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93 Continued


                           No risk                              Four or
                           factors    One      Two     Three    more
    
    High school degree or equivalency status High school degree 24.4 20.3 16.7 18.0 20.6 GED or high school equivalent** 0.0 3.8 10.4 16.3 69.6 Average hours worked/ week while enrolled Not employed 24.2 19.8 17.1 21.1 17.9 1 20 hours 45.2 26.4 12.8 9.1 6.5 21 34 hours 28.9 33.0 16.8 12.0 9.4 35 hours or more 0.0 7.0 14.3 24.9 53.9 Institutional type Public Less-than-2-year 4.8 10.7 23.2 22.6 38.7 2-year 8.7 17.0 18.3 24.1 32.0 4-year nondoctorate-granting 31.3 23.4 15.5 14.4 15.5 4-year doctorate-granting 42.6 25.6 14.3 9.7 7.8 Private, not-for-profit Less-than-4-year 16.7 17.7 15.8 17.2 32.7 4-year nondoctorate-granting 35.9 17.7 12.6 14.5 19.4 4-year doctorate-granting 52.7 19.2 10.4 9.2 8.5 Private, for-profit 13.4 18.8 22.2 20.6 25.1 Race ethnicity American Indian/ Alaskan Native 15.6 11.3 20.5 17.5 35.2 Asian/Pacific Islander 27.0 29.0 17.5 12.3 14.2 Black, non-Hispanic 19.5 18.5 14.4 16.3 31.2 Hispanic 19.1 20.4 17.1 16.9 26.5 White, non-Hispanic 24.1 19.2 16.4 18.7 21.6

    *Risk factors included delayed enrollment, part-time attendance, being financially independent, having dependents, being a single parent, working full time, and being a GED recipient.

    **Passed tests of General Educational Development or high school equivalent.

    NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



    Risk Factors and Persistence in 1992-93

    The NPSAS:93 survey covers only 1 year (1992-93). Therefore, determining degree attainment for participants is not possible. However, persistence within an academic year can be an important determinant of a student's eventual attainment.31 In order to examine persistence within the 1992-93 academic year, the sample was limited to students who were enrolled in the fall of 1992 and who indicated that they planned to be enrolled in the following academic year (1993 94). In this way, students enrolled in postsecondary education to take a class or two and those who were finishing their programs (and, therefore, attending for only one term) should have been eliminated from this group. Students who planned on attending the following year would be expected to attend for the entire academic year. It is this expected persistence that is measured in this analysis.

    Among all of those enrolled in the fall who also planned to attend the following year, 81 percent were enrolled for at least 8 months of 1992-93 (table 9). Almost all the risk factors identified in this study were associated with lower 1-year persistence rates (attended at least 8 months). For example, 76 percent of students who delayed entry into postsecondary education were enrolled for at least 8 months, compared with 84 percent who did not delay. A similar pattern was seen for independent students (75 versus 86 percent), students with dependents (75 percent versus 83 percent), and students who worked full time (71 percent versus 81 percent or higher).

    Having more than one risk factor was strongly associated with lower rates of 1-year persistence (table 9). However, the magnitude of the differences appeared to level off after two risk factors. For example, 93 percent of students with no risk factors persisted for 8 months, compared with 83 percent of those with one risk factor and 76 percent of students with two risk factors. On the other hand, the differences between persistence rates for students with two risk factors, compared with those with three or four, were not statistically significant (76 percent compared with 74 percent and 73 percent, respectively).32 Nevertheless, it is still apparent that having two or more risk factors substantially reduced students' chances of attending for a full academic year.

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    Table 9 Among undergraduates enrolled in fall 1992 who also reported plans to be enrolled in the following year (1993-94), the percentage distribution according to average number of months enrolled, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1992-93


                                Less than    3 5       6 7   8 months
                                3 months   months    months   or more
    
    Total 0.2 13.2 5.5 81.2 Dependency status Dependent 0.1 9.9 4.0 85.9 Independent 0.2 17.1 7.3 75.3 Delayed postsecondary enrollment Did not delay 0.1 11.3 4.8 83.9 Delayed 0.3 17.0 6.8 75.9 Number of risk factors* None 0.0 5.8 1.6 92.5 One 0.0 11.5 5.5 83.0 Two 0.3 16.6 7.5 75.7 Three 0.1 18.0 7.9 73.9 Four or more 0.2 19.1 7.7 73.0 Number of dependents None 0.1 11.9 5.1 82.9 One or more 0.2 17.8 7.0 75.1 Single parent status Not single parent 0.2 13.1 5.4 81.3 Single parent 0.0 14.7 6.7 78.5 Average hours worked/week while enrolled Not employed 0.2 10.3 4.0 85.5 1 20 hours 0.0 8.6 4.2 87.2 21 34 hours 0.0 12.7 6.0 81.3 35 hours or more 0.3 20.5 7.8 71.4 High school degree or equivalency status High school degree 0.1 13.1 5.3 81.5 GED or high school equivalent** 0.3 13.0 10.4 76.3 No high school credential 0.3 18.1 7.4 74.1

    *Risk factors included delayed enrollment, part-time attendance, being financially independent, having dependents, being a single parent, working full time, and being a GED recipient.

    **Passed tests of General Educational Development or high school equivalent.

    SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, , 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.



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    Summary and Conclusions

    It is clear from this analysis that a majority of 1992-93 undergraduates had substantial outside responsibilities or enrollment options that them at risk of not finishing their postsecondary education. About three-quarters of undergraduates were affected by at least one of the factors examined in this study delaying postsecondary education enrollment, attending part time, being independent, having dependents, being single parents, and not graduating from high school. Moreover, the proportion of students who had four or more risk factors was the same as the proportion who had none (about 23 percent). Students with no risk factors are those historically considered traditional (i.e., started postsecondary education immediately after high school and attended full time). Thus, for every traditional student identified in this analysis, there was one with multiple risk factors.

    Students who had any risk factors usually had more than one. That is, if they worked full time, they almost always attended part time; if they had dependents, they often worked full time and attended part time, and so on. In fact, among undergraduates who had any risk factors, only one-quarter had one. (One risk factor was almost always associated with either attending part time or delaying enrollment.) However, even the presence of one risk factor was associated with lower persistence rates for a full academic year in 1992-93, when compared with having none. In addition, among students who were seniors in 1992-93, those who attained a bachelor's degree were more likely to have no risk factors and were less likely to have four or more, compared with seniors who had not completed their degree.

    If one examines the distribution of students according to the length of program offering of institutions, for almost every risk factor examined, the percentage of students affected went up as the length of the program went down. For example 23 percent of students enrolled in less-than-2-year institutions were single parents, contrasted with 9 percent in 2- year institutions and 4 percent in 4-year colleges and universities. A similar pattern was seen for students who did not graduate from high school. Students who either worked full time or attended part time (or both), on the other hand, were more concentrated in the 2-year sector than they were in less-than-2-year institutions.

    Finally, given the increased likelihood that undergraduates with individual risk factors attended less-than-4-year institutions, one would also expect that those with multiple risk factors would be concentrated in this sector as well. This was indeed the case: about one-third of undergraduates enrolled in either less-than-2-year or 2-year institutions had four or more risk factors, compared with 13 percent in 4-year institutions. In contrast, students in 4-year institutions were about four times more likely to have no risk factors (about 40 percent) than those in less-than-4-year institutions.

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    Footnotes


    1. Approximately 46 percent of undergraduates attended 4-year colleges or universities, and about 68 percent of these students were under the age of 24. Thus, overall about one-third (48 percent of 68 percent) of undergraduates were traditional students.

    2. This report refers to institutions that offer 2- to 3-year programs (less than a bachelor's degree) as 2-year institutions, and colleges that offer bachelor's degrees or higher as 4-year institutions. The term level refers to the highest offering of the institution.

    3. U.S. Department of Education, , High School and Beyond: 1992 Descriptive Summary of 1980 High School Sophomores 12 Years Later (Washington, D.C.: 1995).

    4. D. J. Jones and B.C. Collier, High Risk Students in Higher Education: Future Trends, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 3 (1990); and American Council on Education, Seminar Overview, J.S. Eaton (ed.), Financing Nontraditional Students: A Seminar Report (Washington, D.C.: 1992).

    5. D.J. Jones and B.C. Collier (1990).

    6. J.P. Bean and B.S. Metzner, A Conceptual Model of Nontraditional Undergraduate Student Attrition, Review of Educational Research 55 (4) (1985).

    7. V. Tinto, Dropout from Higher Education: A Theoretical Synthesis of Recent Research, Review of Educational Research 45 (1975).

    8. U.S. Department of Education, , College Persistence and Degree Attainment for 1980 High School Graduates: Hazards for Transfers, Stopouts, and Part-Timers (Washington D.C.: 1989).

    9. For a comprehensive review, see E. Pascarella and P. Terenzini, How College Affects Students (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991).

    10. U.S. Department of Education, , Patterns and Consequences of Delay in Postsecondary Education: 1972, 1980, and 1982 High School Graduates (Washington, D.C.: 1989).

    11. See, for example, U.S. Department of Education, , High School and Beyond: 1992 Descriptive Summary of 1980 High School Sophomores 12 Years Later (Washington, D.C.: 1995).

    12. For this analysis, students who delayed enrollment were defined as those who did not enroll in postsecondary education the same year as they graduated from high school, making the assumption that high school graduation occurs in May or June.

    13. Students were asked if they had any of the following disabilities: hearing impairment; speech disability or limitation; orthopedic or mobility limitation; specific learning disability; vision impairment that cannot be corrected by glasses or legally blind; or any other type of limitations, disabilities, or handicaps.

    14. For a detailed description of part-time students, see U.S. Department of Education, , Profile of Part-Time Undergraduates in Postsecondary Education: 1989 90 (Washington, D.C.: 1995).

    15. See U.S. Department of Education, , Profile of Older Undergraduates: 1989 90 (Washington, D.C.: 1995) and Profile of Part-Time Undergraduates 1989 90 (Washington, DC: 1995) for a discussion of these two groups of students.

    16. High School and Beyond: 1992 Descriptive Summary of 1980 High School Sophomores 12 Years Later (1995).

    17. See compendium table 2.2a: 61 percent of part-time, full-year students and 69 percent of part-time, part-year students attended 2-year institutions. It should be noted that part-time attendance for this analysis is based on attendance throughout students' enrollment between July 1, 1992 and June 30, 1993. Thus these estimates of part-time attendance may appear higher than those based on IPEDS data, which are reported by institutions at the beginning of the fall term.

    18. Note that those attending part time for a full year may include those who had mixed full- time, part-time attendance.

    19. See compendium table 4.2b for the relationship between gender and age and text table 5 for the relationship between gender and dependents.

    20 See compendium table 2.1b.

    21. See appendix A for a complete definition of dependency status. Note that the term financial dependence refers to the federal financial aid requirement stipulating that the parents of dependents must pay for a portion of their children's education. This requirement is based on a number of factors, including the student's age, marital status, military status, and so on. It does not reflect the student's financial circumstances.

    22. If a student under the age of 24 is married or has dependents and the student's parents did not claim the student as dependent for tax purposes, the student is considered financially independent.

    23. For example, 40 percent of independent students in less-than-2-year institutions were under age 24, compared with 15 percent in 2-year institutions and 9 percent in 4-year institutions (NCES NPSAS:93 undergraduate DAS).

    24. See compendium table 2.2b. Note all single parents are, by definition, independent.

    25. D. Stern and Y. Nakata, Paid Employment Among U.S. College Undergraduates, Journal of Higher Education 62 (1990).

    26. Many part-time students are not eligible for financial aid because they attend less than half time.

    27. This is consistent with a previous NCES report on working undergraduates using NPSAS:90 data showing that students who borrowed were less likely to work full time and more likely to work part time. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Undergraduates Who Work While Enrolled in Postsecondary Education: 1989 90 (Washington, D.C.: 1994).

    28. S.V. Cameron and J.J. Heckman, The Nonequivalence of High School Equivalence, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 3804 (Cambridge, MA: 1991).

    29. See text table 5.

    30. Because students with no high school credentials are precluded from entering many colleges, the impact of this risk factor is far greater than the others. Therefore, these students (about 1.9 percent of undergraduates) are not included in the analysis of multiple risk factors.

    31. For an analysis of how these risk factors affect persistence and attainment over a 5-year period, see U.S. Department of Education, , Educational Persistence and Attainment of 1989 90 Beginning Postsecondary Students as of 1994, forthcoming.

    32. It should be noted, however, that students with multiple risk factors were more likely to enroll in nonfall terms than those with few or no risk factors; therefore, because only students enrolled in the fall could be included in the analysis, the persistence rates for undergraduates with three or more risk factors may have been overestimated.

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