Between 1982 and 1992, the average number of credits earned by public high school graduates increased from 21.4 to 23.8.[Endnote 5] This rise in total credits was accounted for almost entirely by increases in academic courses, which increased from an average of 14.2 to an average of 17.3 credits (figure 2.1). Vocational credits completed by high school graduates declined from 4.6 to 3.8, and credits completed in the personal use curriculum remained essentially unchanged, averaging 2.6 in 1982 and 2.7 in 1992.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Year of graduation First course Second course or higher Specialty --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1982 1.8 0.9 0.2 1987 1.8 0.9 0.2 1990 1.7 0.7 0.3 1992 1.5 0.7 0.4 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
SOURCE: , High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
The decline in vocational course taking was evident throughout the vocational curriculum (figure 2.2). However, it is the declining level of participation in the occupationally specific curriculum, from 2.9 to 2.5 credits between 1982 and 1992, that is likely to have the greatest impact on students' labor market prospects after high school. In an exhaustive literature review on the topic, the National Assessment of Vocational Education concluded that "the research consistently finds that wage and employment outcomes are superior for those whose field of study and occupation match . . . , [and that] . . . vocational education students who complete at least two credits in [an occupationally specific field] and find jobs related to their training have higher earnings and less unemployment over time than those with a more general background. In addition, individuals with higher concentrations of coursework are more likely to find a training-related job."[Endnote 6]
Trends in course taking within the occupationally specific curriculum were also a matter of concern for the National Assessment of Vocational Education. Between 1982 and 1992, credits completed in the occupationally specific curriculum declined in advanced vocational courses and increased in specialty topics (those not clearly linked to a coherent program of coursework) (table 2.1). For example, 1982 high school graduates completed an average of 1.8 credits in the first course of a sequence within the occupationally specific curriculum (compared with 1.5 credits for 1992 graduates ), 0.9 credits in the second or higher course in a sequence (compared with 0.7 credits), and 0.2 credits in specialty courses (compared with 0.4 credits).
Table 2.2 shows the percentage of graduates who completed at least one course in each curriculum. All graduates participated in the academic curriculum because each transcript had to show a positive number of English credits to be included in the sample. Although participation in the vocational curriculum was not a sample selection criterion, participation in this curriculum was almost universal. The rate of participation did decline between 1982 and 1992, from 97.8 percent to 96.5 percent of all graduates, but the decline was small.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Percentage of Percentage of graduates
graduates with credits in with vocational credits in
-------------------------- ----------------------------
General Occupa-
labor Consumer and tionally
Year of Personal market homemaking specific
graduation Academic Vocational use preparation education education
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1982 100.0 97.8 98.5 78.6 49.9 86.7
1987 100.0 97.8 98.5 78.5 47.1 88.5
1990 100.0 97.4 99.5 71.6 48.1 86.8
1992 100.0 96.5 99.4 62.4 45.4 87.1
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SOURCE: , High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
Rates of participation did, however, vary across the subdivisions of the vocational curriculum. Participation in the occupationally specific curriculum was consistently higher than in the general labor market preparation and consumer and homemaking education curricula, and the level of participation remained relatively stable over the 10-year period, at about 87–89 percent of all graduates. Rates of participation in the general labor market preparation and the consumer and homemaking curricula, on the other hand, declined over this time.
In the general labor market preparation and the consumer and homemaking education curricula, both the rate of participation and the average number of credits completed diminished over time. By contrast, the proportion of students taking occupationally specific courses was unchanged over time, so the decline in the average number of credits completed by graduates is explained solely by a decline in the average number of courses completed by those who participated in this curriculum.[Endnote 7]
Changes in composition of occupationally specific course taking, however, reflect shifts in both the rates of participation and the average number of credits completed at the different course levels. For example, average credits earned in occupationally specific courses that were part of a sequence of courses declined between 1982 and 1992, and so did rates of participation (table 2.3). The average number of credits completed in specialty courses increased over time, as did the rate of participation (from 22.2 percent of graduates in 1982 to 38.2 percent of graduates in 1992). Thus, high school graduates continued to participate in the occupationally specific curriculum at the same rate in 1992 as they had in 1982 overall, but they completed fewer credits on average and the composition of their course taking shifted away from sequential courses and toward specialty courses.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Year of graduation First course Second course or higher Specialty ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1982 79.4 46.4 22.2 1987 81.9 46.5 20.5 1990 78.1 36.9 26.2 1992 75.3 35.1 38.2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SOURCE: , High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
Course-Taking Trends by Gender
The average number of credits completed in high school increased for both males and females, although females completed slightly more credits than did males in both 1982 and 1992 (table 2.4). The average number of credits completed by females in the academic curriculum increased from 14.4 in 1982 to 17.9 in 1992, while academic course taking among males rose from 13.9 to 16.8. The number of courses completed in the vocational curriculum declined for both groups, but the decline in vocational course taking was larger among females than among males. In 1982, females completed an average of 4.7 vocational credits, and males completed an average of 4.6 vocational credits (this difference is not statistically significant). In 1992, males earned an average of 3.9 credits, while females earned 3.6. Males also consistently completed more credits in the personal use curriculum than did females.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Average credits earned in
---------------------------------------------------
Year of graduation
and student Personal
characteristics Total Academic Vocational use
1982
Total 21.4 14.2 4.6 2.6
Gender
Male 21.3 13.9 4.6 2.8
Female 21.6 14.4 4.7 2.5
Race-ethnicity
American Indian 21.3 13.3 5.1 2.9
Asian 22.2 16.0 3.1 3.1
Black, non-Hispanic 21.1 13.7 4.8 2.6
Hispanic 21.2 13.0 5.3 2.9
White, non-Hispanic 21.5 14.4 4.5 2.6
Parents' educational
attainment
Less than high
school graduate 21.2 13.0 5.5 2.7
High school
graduate 21.3 13.3 5.4 2.6
Some postsecondary 21.5 14.4 4.5 2.7
Bachelor's degree 21.7 15.8 3.3 2.6
Advanced degree 21.9 16.2 3.1 2.6
Vocational credits earned in
-----------------------------------------
General Occupa-
Year of graduation labor Consumer and tionally
and student market homemaking specific
characteristics preparation education education
-------------------------------------------------------------
1982
Total 1.1 0.7 2.9
Gender
Male 1.0 0.3 3.3
Female 1.1 1.0 2.5
Race-ethnicity
American Indian 1.3 0.5 3.3
Asian 1.0 0.3 1.9
Black, non-Hispanic 1.1 0.9 2.8
Hispanic 1.2 0.9 3.2
White, non-Hispanic 1.0 0.6 2.9
Parents' educational
attainment
Less than high
school graduate 1.2 0.9 3.4
High school
graduate 1.2 0.8 3.4
Some postsecondary 1.1 0.6 2.8
Bachelor's degree 0.9 0.4 2.0
Advanced degree 0.8 0.4 1.9
Occupationally
specific credits by sequence
------------------------------------
Year of graduation Second
and student First course
characteristics course or higher Specialty
-------------------------------------------------------
1982
Total 1.8 0.9 0.2
Gender
Male 2.1 1.0 0.3
Female 1.5 0.8 0.2
Race-ethnicity
American Indian 2.2 0.9 0.3
Asian 1.2 0.5 0.2
Black, non-Hispanic 1.7 0.9 0.3
Hispanic 2.0 1.0 0.2
White, non-Hispanic 1.8 0.9 0.2
Parents' educational
attainment
Less than high
school graduate 2.0 1.1 0.3
High school
graduate 2.1 1.0 0.3
Some postsecondary 1.7 0.8 0.2
Bachelor's degree 1.2 0.6 0.2
Advanced degree 1.2 0.6 0.2
Average credits earned in
------------------------------------------
Year of graduation
and student Personal
characteristics Total Academic Vocational use
---------------------------------------------------------------
1992
Total 23.8 17.3 3.8 2.7
Gender
Male 23.6 16.8 3.9 2.9
Female 23.9 17.9 3.6 2.5
Race-ethnicity
American Indian 23.4 15.9 4.5 3.0
Asian 24.5 18.4 3.2 2.9
Black, non-Hispanic 23.2 16.6 3.9 2.7
Hispanic 23.6 16.8 3.8 3.0
White, non-Hispanic 23.8 17.5 3.7 2.6
Parents' educational
attainment
Less than high school
graduate 23.3 16.1 4.5 2.7
High school graduate 23.4 16.3 4.5 2.6
Some postsecondary 23.8 17.2 3.9 2.7
Bachelor's degree 24.1 18.7 2.8 2.6
Advanced degree 24.5 19.6 2.2 2.7
Vocational credits earned in
General Occupa-
Year of graduation labor Consumer and tionally
and student market homemaking specific
characteristics preparation education education
------------------------------------------------------------
1992
Total 0.5 2.5 1.5
Gender
Male 0.4 2.9 1.7
Female 0.7 2.2 1.3
Race-ethnicity
American Indian 0.5 3.4 2.0
Asian 0.4 2.3 1.4
Black, non-Hispanic 0.7 2.5 1.6
Hispanic 0.5 2.6 1.4
White, non-Hispanic 0.5 2.5 1.5
Parents' educational
attainment
Less than high school
graduate 0.7 3.0 1.7
High school graduate 0.7 3.0 1.8
Some postsecondary 0.6 2.7 1.6
Bachelor's degree 0.4 1.9 1.1
Advanced degree 0.3 1.5 0.9
Occupationally
specific credits by sequence
----------------------------------
Year of graduation Second
and student First course
characteristics course or higher Specialty
------------------------------------------------------
1992
Total 1.5 0.7 0.4
Gender
Male 1.7 0.8 0.4
Female 1.3 0.5 0.4
Race-ethnicity
American Indian 2.0 1.0 0.4
Asian 1.4 0.5 0.4
Black, non-Hispanic 1.6 0.6 0.4
Hispanic 1.4 0.7 0.5
White, non-Hispanic 1.5 0.7 0.4
Parents' educational
attainment
Less than high school
graduate 1.7 0.8 0.5
High school graduate 1.8 0.9 0.4
Some postsecondary 1.6 0.7 0.4
Bachelor's degree 1.1 0.4 0.3
Advanced degree 0.9 0.3 0.3
------------------------------------------------------
NOTE: Details may not sum to totals due to rounding.
SOURCE: , High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
Course taking within the vocational curriculum also varied by gender. Occupationally specific course taking declined over time for both males and females, but males consistently earned more credits in this curriculum than did females. Furthermore, males completed more occupationally specific course credits in sequential courses than did females in 1982 and 1992.
Trends in course taking in the consumer and homemaking curriculum differed between males and females. The average number of credits completed by females in this curriculum declined from 1.0 credits in 1982 to 0.7 credits in 1992, while credits earned by males did not change between 1982 and 1992. Females continued to earn more credits in consumer and homemaking education than did males in 1992, but the difference was smaller than in 1982.
Course-Taking Trends by Race–Ethnicity
Graduates in all racial and ethnic categories completed more credits overall and more academic credits in 1992 than in 1982, but while the trends were relatively similar, patterns of academic and overall course taking varied by race–ethnicity (table 2.4). For example, Asian graduates typically earned more credits in the academic curriculum than did members of the other racial and ethnic groups.
Both enrollment trends and patterns of participation in the vocational curriculum differed by race–ethnicity, although patterns of participation tended to converge over time. Vocational course taking declined among Hispanics, blacks, and whites between 1982 and 1992, but was unchanged among American Indians and Asians over the same period. Compared to the members of the other groups, Asians earned relatively few vocational credits in 1982. However, because of the different trends in course taking among the racial and ethnic groups, vocational course taking among whites and Hispanics was not statistically different from vocational course taking among Asians in 1992, nor were there any statistically significant differences between whites, Hispanics, or blacks in the number of vocational credits completed in 1992.
Course-Taking Trends by Parents' Education
Course-taking trends were the same for all groups of graduates, irrespective of their parents' level of educational attainment (table 2.4). All groups of graduates earned more credits overall and more academic credits in 1992 than in 1982. At the same time, all groups of graduates earned fewer vocational credits in 1992 than their peers in 1982.
Despite the common trends, however, patterns of course taking among high school graduates varied by and were related to their parents' level of educational attainment. Higher levels of parental education were consistently related to higher levels of course taking overall, as well as to higher levels of academic course taking. Conversely, graduates whose parents had lower levels of education tended to earn more vocational credits than graduates whose parents had higher levels of education.
Course-Taking Trends by Disability Status
Because of significant differences in the way disability status is defined in High School and Beyond data and the other data sources, the 1982 disability status data cannot be reported with other data to mark trends. However, the definition of students with disabilities is relatively comparable in the three later transcript files, so it is possible to trace course taking by disabled and nondisabled students between 1987 and 1992.[Endnote 8]
Between 1987 and 1992, course taking increased overall and in the academic curriculum regardless of disability status (table 2.5). Despite the similar trends, students with disabilities earned fewer total credits than nondisabled students in both 1987 and 1992. However, while the overall differences were fairly small, course taking differences between graduates with and without disabilities were much larger in the academic and vocational curricula. Graduates with disabilities consistently earned more vocational credits and fewer academic credits than those without disabilities, and the disparity in vocational course taking increased over time. Between 1987 and 1992, vocational credits earned by nondisabled graduates fell by 0.7, while the apparent decline in vocational courses taken by graduates with disabilities, from 6.0 credits in 1987 to 5.6 credits in 1992, was not statistically significant.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Average credits earned in
-----------------------------------------
Year of graduation Personal
and disability status Total Academic Vocational use
-------------------------------------------------------------------
1987
Total 22.8 15.6 4.4 2.7
Has disability 21.9 12.6 6.0 3.3
No disability 22.8 15.8 4.4 2.7
1992
Total 23.8 17.3 3.8 2.7
Has disability 23.2 14.2 5.6 3.4
No disability 23.8 17.4 3.7 2.7
Vocational credits earned in
----------------------------------------
General Occupa-
labor Consumer and tionally
Year of graduation market homemaking specific
and disability status preparation education education
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1987
Total 0.9 0.6 2.9
Has disability 1.5 0.8 3.8
No disability 0.9 0.6 2.9
1992
Total 0.7 0.5 2.5
Has disability 1.0 0.8 3.8
No disability 0.7 0.5 2.5
Occupationally
specific credits by sequence
----------------------------------
Second
Year of graduation First course
and disability status course or higher Specialty
------------------------------------------------------------
1987
Total 1.8 0.9 0.2
Has disability 2.1 1.4 0.3
No disability 1.8 0.9 0.2
1992
Total 1.5 0.7 0.4
Has disability 2.2 1.1 0.4
No disability 1.5 0.6 0.4
------------------------------------------------------------
NOTE: Details may not sum to total due to rounding.
SOURCE: , 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
Graduates with and without disabilities also exhibited different trends in their occupationally specific course taking between 1987 and 1992. Among graduates with disabilities, credits earned in the occupationally specific curriculum did not change over these five years, nor did the number of credits earned in occupationally specific sequential courses. Course taking in the occupationally specific specialty courses increased slightly, however. In contrast, occupationally specific course taking declined from 2.9 to 2.5 credits overall among graduates without disabilities, and declines were evident in both the first course and the second or higher course in a sequence. But like graduates with disabilities, those without disabilities completed more credits in the specialty courses in 1992 than in 1987. Thus, graduates with no disabilities tended to take fewer courses within a structured sequence in 1992 than in 1982, while graduates with disabilities did not.
Course-Taking Trends by Limited-English-Proficiency (LEP) Status
Unlike the other variables included in this report, the LEP status variable is available only for the 1992 graduates. Hence, this section describes the course-taking behavior of LEP versus non-LEP graduates in 1992, but no comparisons are made over time.
Both LEP and non-LEP graduates completed about the same number of credits in high school, but the distribution of those credits differed by LEP status (table 2.6). Non-LEP graduates completed more credits in the academic curriculum than LEP graduates (17.5 versus 16.3 credits), while LEP graduates completed more credits than non-LEP students in the personal use curriculum (3.2 versus 2.7 credits). However, there were no significant differences between these two groups in vocational course taking overall or within the different vocational curricula.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in
----------------------------------- -------------------------------------
General Occupa-
labor Consumer and tionally
LEP Personal market homemaking specific
status Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total 23.8 17.3 3.8 2.7 0.7 0.5 2.5
LEP 23.7 16.3 4.2 3.2 0.7 0.6 2.9
Non-LEP 23.8 17.5 3.7 2.7 0.7 0.5 2.5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NOTE: Details may not sum to total due to rounding.
SOURCE: , National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
Summary of General Trends
To briefly summarize, then, academic course taking increased among high school graduates between 1982 and 1992, vocational course taking declined, and course taking in the personal use curriculum was unchanged. However, the increases in academic course taking were larger than the declines in vocational course taking, so the total number of credits completed by graduates went up. These same trends were shared by most student groups, although the downward trends in vocational course taking were not evident among American Indians, Asians, and graduates with disabilities.
[Chapter 3]