• Demographic Background
• Access to Higher Education
• Enrollment in Higher Education
• Degrees Conferred and Recipient Characteristics
• Financial Aid
• Staff and Faculty
• Tribally Controlled Colleges
• References

This report provides a comprehensive compilation of data on Native American participation in postsecondary education. By pulling together and discussing data from many sources, the report presents a portrait of American Indians and Alaska Natives involved in all facets of higher education—as undergraduate students, graduate students, and faculty. The focus is on Native American involvement at 4-year and 2-year colleges and universities. Concluding the report is a detailed discussion of tribally controlled colleges, which play an important role in Native American higher education.

Between 1900 and 1990, the number of Native Americans¹recorded in the decennial census increased from about 237,000 people to slightly less than 2 million, and their proportion of the total U.S. population increased from 0.3 percent to 0.8 percent. Most of this tremendous growth occurred from 1970 to 1990, with an increase of 1.2 million people. Some of the growth is due to more self-identification by individuals with their Native American heritage.

Compared with the overall population, Native Americans in 1990 were

• more likely to be under the age of 18 (36 percent of Native Americans, compared with 26 percent of the total population);

• more likely to live in the western United States (48 percent of Native Americans, compared with 21 percent of the total population);

• less likely to live in urban areas (56 percent, compared with 75 percent of the total population);

• more likely to have lower family incomes ($21,750 median family income among all Native American families, compared with $35,225 among all families nationwide);

• more likely to live in poverty (17 percent of married-couple families among Native Americans, for example, compared with 6 percent of married-couple families overall); and

• more likely to have lower levels of educational attainment, despite recent gains.

Between 1980 and 1990, Native Americans improved their overall level of educational attainment. For example, the percentage of Native Americans 25 years and older who had completed high school increased from 56 percent to 66 percent. Despite recent improvements, however, Native American educational attainment continued to lag behind that of the total population. In 1990, 66 percent of Native Americans had completed high school, compared with 75 percent of the total population. Among Native Americans, 9 percent had attained a bachelor's degree or higher, compared with 20 percent among the general population. Only 3 percent of Native Americans held graduate or professional degrees, compared with 7 percent of the total population.

Educational attainment varied widely across tribes, with the high school completion rate ranging from 94 percent for the Coos tribe to 29 percent for the Miccosukee tribe. Among Native Americans 25 years or older living on Indian reservations, 54 percent had earned a high school diploma by 1990.

An improved rate of high school completion, coupled with the large proportion of Native Americans under the age of 18, suggests that an increasing number of American Indians and Alaska Natives will be eligible for college enrollment in the coming years.

In 1993-94, nearly half a million (491,939) Native American students were enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools. About 9 percent of these students attended BIA-tribal schools, which are funded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, operated by either that agency or a tribal organization, and attended almost exclusively by Native Americans. An additional 38 percent of Native American students attended schools with "high Indian enrollment" (at least 25 percent Native American).

At BIA-tribal schools, the percentage of high school seniors who graduated increased slightly between 1989-90 and 1992-93, from 82 percent to 86 percent. The graduation rate at high Indian enrollment and low Indian enrollment schools was 91 percent for 1992-93 seniors.

From 1990-91 to 1993-94, the percentage of high school seniors applying to college rose at BIA-tribal schools. While about one-third of seniors at BIA-tribal schools applied to college in 1990-91, the percentage applying to college had increased to almost one-half (47 percent) by 1993-94. High Indian enrollment schools had a 1993-94 application rate of 45 percent, while low Indian enrollment schools had an application rate of 58 percent.

College admissions officers often consider criteria such as applicants' high school coursework and grade point average, scores on a standardized entrance exam (SAT or ACT), and extracurricular activities. While Native Americans continue to lag behind national averages in each of these measures, they have made improvements in many areas since the 1970s.

In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education recommended that all high school students complete a core curriculum of 4 units of English; 3 units each of science, social studies, and mathematics; and 0.5 units of computer science. From 1982 to 1992, completion of a recommended precollege curriculum²increased from 6 percent to 31 percent among Native American high school graduates. During the same period, completion of the recommended precollege curriculum increased from 13 percent to 47 percent among all high school graduates.

Average SAT scores among American Indians and Alaska Natives electing to take the exam have increased over the past 20 years. In 1976, Native Americans had an average combined verbal and mathematics score of 808 on the SAT exam. By 1995, the average score had reached 850, an increase of 42 points over 1976. In 1995, the national average SAT score was 910, an increase of only 7 points over 1976 scores. Native American ACT scores have also improved in recent years.

Analysis of a sample of 1992 college-bound high school graduates revealed that the Native American students were, on average, less competitive for the college admissions process than the overall sample. For example, among the college-bound Native American high school graduates

• only 2 percent had a combined SAT score of 1,100 or higher, compared with 22 percent of all college-bound graduates;

• only 24 percent had completed a precollege curriculum,³compared with 56 percent of all college-bound graduates; and

• only 5 percent had at least a 3.5 grade point average. Nationwide, 19 percent of college-bound graduates had at least a 3.5 grade point average.

From 1976 to 1994, the number of Native Americans enrolled in institutions of higher education (IHEs)⁴jumped from 76,000 to 127,000, an increase of 67 percent. During the same period, overall enrollment in IHEs increased 30 percent.

Increased enrollment by women was the main reason for substantial gains in enrollment levels from 1976 to 1994. Among Native American women, enrollment increased 98 percent, from 37,600 to 74,400. Overall enrollment by women increased 52 percent. During the same period, Native American male enrollment rose only 38 percent and total male enrollment rose only 10 percent. As a result of these changes, by 1994 women composed the majority of both Native American enrollment (58 percent) and overall enrollment (59 percent).

From 1976 to 1994, Native American enrollment at 4-year institutions increased at a higher rate (75 percent) than at 2-year institutions (61 percent). For students overall, the enrollment pattern was the opposite, with greater increases at 2-year institutions. The increased rate of Native American enrollment at the 4-year level did not, however, result in a significant increase in the proportion of Native American students attending 4-year institutions (46 percent in 1976 and 48 percent in 1994). Among the general student population, the majority attended 4-year colleges in both years (65 percent in 1976 and 61 percent in 1994).

From 1976 to 1994, Native American enrollment increased 93 percent at private institutions and 64 percent at public institutions. However, these percentage increases resulted in a gain of only 8,000 Native American students at private schools, versus a gain of 43,200 at public schools. Among the general student population, private school enrollment increased by 34 percent (800,500 students), while public school enrollment increased by 29 percent (2.5 million students).

In 1994, Native American students continued to attend public institutions at a higher rate than students overall (87 percent of Native American students, compared with 78 percent of all students). This difference could be driven by the fact that the majority of Native Americans attended 2- year institutions, which are generally public institutions.

During the 1992-93 academic year, 51 percent of Native American undergraduates were enrolled in associate's degree programs, compared with only 39 percent of undergraduates overall. Native Americans were less likely to enroll in bachelor's degree programs. Thus, only 31 percent of Native Americans were enrolled in bachelor's degree programs, compared with 43 percent of all undergraduates.

Between 1976 and 1994, Native American enrollment at all degree levels increased by larger percentages than did overall enrollment. Due to these increases, Native American students have moved closer to achieving the same level of representation at the graduate and first-professional degree levels as they have in the total population. At the undergraduate level, American Indians and Alaska Natives have exceeded their representation in the population—1 percent of undergraduate enrollment and 0.8 percent of the total population.

In 1994, the five IHEs enrolling the largest numbers of Native Americans were located in three states—New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Arizona. Each of these states ranked among the top four in terms of total Native American population.

Five states—Arizona, California, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Washington—had statewide enrollments of more than 5,000 Native American postsecondary students in 1994. Native Americans exceeded 5 percent of total postsecondary enrollment in six states—Alaska, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and South Dakota.

From 1976-77 to 1993-94, the number of degrees that IHEs awarded to Native Americans jumped from 7,082 to 13,366, an increase of 89 percent (table A). During the same period, the overall number of IHE degrees rose from 1.7 million to 2.2 million, an increase of 27 percent. Among Native Americans and all degree recipients, the rate of increase was higher for women than for men. By 1986-87, consequently, women constituted the majority of IHE degree recipients both among Native Americans and overall. By 1993-94, women received 59 percent of IHE degrees awarded to Native Americans and 55 percent of all IHE degrees.

At all degree levels, the percentage increase in degrees awarded between 1976-77 and 1993-94 was larger for Native Americans than for total IHE recipients. Thus, the number of associate's degrees conferred increased by 95 percent for Native Americans, compared with 31 percent for all recipients. The number of bachelor's degrees increased by 86 percent for Native Americans, compared with 27 percent for degree recipients overall.

At the graduate level, the number of master's degrees and first-professional degrees awarded to Native Americans increased by 76 percent and 89 percent, respectively, compared with increases of 22 percent and 18 percent for all degree recipients. The 41 percent increase in Native American doctoral degree recipients was more similar to the 30 percent increase experienced by the nation.

At all degree levels, the percentage increase in degrees awarded between 1976-77 and 1993-94 was larger for women than for men. This pattern held for Native American degree recipients as well as all IHE degree recipients. Among Native Americans, for example, the rate of increase in bachelor's degrees was 135 percent for women and 45 percent for men. By 1993-94, Native American women were awarded 58 percent of all bachelor's degrees earned by Native Americans. Native American women also earned the majority of associate's, master's, and doctor's degrees. Their share of first-professional degrees increased from 19 percent in 1976-77 to 40 percent in 1993-94.

Native Americans received 13,366, or about 0.6 percent, of the 2.2 million degrees awarded by IHEs in 1993-94 (table A). This represents an increase from the 0.4 percent of all degrees that were earned by American Indians and Alaska Natives in 1976-77. While some increase occurred in Native Americans' share of each degree type, the smallest increase occurred among doctor's degrees (from 0.29 percent in 1976-77 to 0.31 percent in 1993-94). The greatest share increase was in associate's degrees (from 0.6 percent in 1976-77 to 0.9 percent in 1993-94).

Native American increases in degree attainment, while consistent with rising shares of American Indian and Alaska Native enrollment, do not yet match enrollment shares. Attainment increases have also failed to keep pace with Native American population growth. By 1994, Native Americans composed 1 percent of all Americans 20 to 24 years old, the ages when college graduation typically occurs. Native Americans matched this population representation only in their share of associate's degrees (0.9 percent). At all other degree levels, they did not attain a share of degrees equal to their share of the population aged 20 to 24.

Considering all degrees taken together, Native Americans were somewhat more likely to receive associate's degrees and less likely to obtain bachelor's, master's, or doctor's degrees than all students in IHEs. Among American Indian and Alaska Native recipients in 1993-94, 47 percent received bachelor's degrees; 37 percent, associate's degrees; 13 percent, master's; and 1 percent, doctor's degrees. Among all degree recipients, the majority (53 percent) received bachelor's degrees; 24 percent received associate's degrees; 18 percent, master's degrees; and 2 percent, doctor's degrees.

Considering all higher education degrees (associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctor's), the five institutions awarding the most degrees to American Indians and Alaska Natives in 1993-94 were located in two states, Oklahoma and Arizona. These states also ranked first and third, respectively, in total American Indian and Alaska Native population. In terms of bachelor's degrees awarded to Native Americans, the three top colleges were all in Oklahoma.

A large proportion of American Indian and Alaska Native degree recipients were also found in California, New Mexico, and Washington, all of which have large Native American populations. Reflecting the small number of American Indian and Alaska Native degree recipients nationwide, only 31 colleges and universities awarded more than 50 degrees to Native Americans in 1993-94.

Characteristics. Thirty-one percent of Native American recipients in 1992-93 began their studies at a 2-year institution, and 73 percent attended more than one institution before graduating. Additionally,

• 82 percent of 1992-93 Native American bachelor's degree recipients graduated from a public institution, and 65 percent of all bachelor's degree recipientsgraduated from a public institution;

• 41 percent of Native American bachelor's degree recipients graduated from a doctoral-granting institution, and 55 percent of all bachelor's degree recipients graduated from a doctoral-granting institution; and

• 9 percent of Native American bachelor's degree recipients were enrolled full time 1 year after bachelor's degree completion, and 12 percent of all bachelor's degree recipients were enrolled full time 1 year after degree completion.

During the 1992-93 academic year, about 62 percent of American Indian and Alaska Native undergraduates needed financial assistance to attend postsecondary institutions. Most of these students received some form of financial assistance in the form of grants, loans, or work-study. The percentage of all undergraduates who needed and received financial aid in 1992-93 was similar.

The federal government is the most common source of aid for Native American undergraduates, with 34 percent receiving some type of federal financial aid. The most common type of federal aid awarded to Native American undergraduates came in the form of grants, followed by a combination of grants and loans.

The Office of Postsecondary Education is the main provider of federal aid for both Native American undergraduates and undergraduates overall. The federal government also offers several grant and scholarship programs designed specifically to provide aid to Native American students at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. These programs are administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Indian Health Service. Each of the programs encourages Native American students to pursue post-secondary degrees, but most stipulate specific fields in which study must occur.

Among 1994 doctorate recipients, more than half (55 percent) of Native Americans paid for their education using personal funds, compared with 46 percent of all U.S. citizen doctorate recipients. Native Americans also tended, however, to earn degrees in fields where all racial-ethnic groups had a greater reliance on personal funding, such as social sciences, humanities, and education.

Among Native American doctorate recipients, 61 percent graduated owing money for their education and 28 percent owed more than $15,000. Among all U.S. citizen doctorate recipients, 55 percent graduated with debt and 20 percent owed more than $15,000.

From 1983 to 1993, the number of Native Americans employed as full-time staff at IHEs grew from 6,735 to 9,229, an increase of 37 percent. Full-time employment among all IHE staff increased by about 12 percent during the same period. Among Native Americans and all staff, the rate of increase was higher for women than for men. Thus, the number of full-time staff increased 77 percent for Native American women and 20 percent for women overall. For men, the increase was 9 percent for Native Americans and 5 percent overall. By 1993, Native American women held 53 percent of all full-time IHE positions held by Native Americans.

In each higher education occupational category, employment among Native Americans grew faster than among the overall population from 1983 to 1993. Positions classified as professional experienced the most growth among both populations, although the rates of growth were higher for Native Americans. For example, full-time professional (support and service) staff increased by 78 percent among Native Americans, compared with 39 percent overall. Full-time executive, administrative, and managerial staff increased by 69 percent among Native Americans, compared with 17 percent overall. Despite these gains, Native Americans' 1993 share of professional positions remained lower than their share of other positions at IHEs (table B).

From 1983 to 1993, full-time faculty positions grew by 53 percent among Native Americans, compared with 12 percent overall. As with other higher education occupations, the rate of growth was greater for women, both among Native Americans and overall. For example, the number of full-time faculty increased 112 percent for Native American women and 41 percent for women overall. The increase was 30 percent for Native American men and 2 percent for men overall. By 1993, women made up 38 percent of American Indian and Alaska Native full-time faculty and 33 percent of the total IHE full-time faculty.

In 1993, about the same proportion of faculty were employed full time among Native Americans and overall (59 and 60 percent, respectively). At 2-year institutions, however, Native American faculty were somewhat more likely than overall faculty to be employed full time (47 percent and 36 percent, respectively).

American Indian and Alaska Native faculty were more likely than overall faculty to be employed in public and 2-year institutions. About 84 percent of all (full- and part-time) Native American faculty were employed in public institutions, compared with about 71 percent of total faculty. Among all American Indian and Alaska Native faculty, about 49 percent were in 2-year institutions, compared with 32 percent of total faculty. Among full-time faculty, 39 percent of Native Americans, compared with 19 percent of total faculty, were employed in 2-year institutions.

In 1993, the median 9- to 10-month full-time contract salary for American Indians and Alaska Natives was $39,118, compared with $43,205 for total full-time faculty. Thus, median salaries for Native American full-time faculty were 91 percent of median salaries for full-time faculty overall. The smallest differences were in 2-year institutions, where Native American median salaries were 98 percent of those earned by total full-time faculty. The largest differences were in private institutions, where Native American salaries were 82 percent of those for all full-time faculty.

About 29 percent of the total IHE full-time faculty were full professors in 1993, compared with 18 percent of Native Americans. The largest percentage of American Indians and Alaska Natives held the rank of lecturer or instructor (33 percent). The rank distribution of Native American and Alaska Native faculty showed little change over time, with Native Americans making up 0.2 percent of full professors in both 1981 and 1993. The largest increase in Native Americans as a proportion of total faculty occurred in the rank of instructor (from 0.4 percent in 1981 to 0.9 percent in 1993).

In 1993, American Indian and Alaska Native faculty were the least likely to have tenure of any racial-ethnic group. Among Native Americans, about 38 percent of full-time faculty had tenure, compared with about 51 percent of all full-time faculty.

In general, faculty tended to be located in the same areas where large numbers of Native Americans resided and attended IHEs. The largest numbers of American Indian and Alaska Native faculty were found in California (690), Oklahoma (257), and Texas (210), all of which have large Native American populations.

The largest percentage of American Indian and Alaska Native faculty were employed in four tribally controlled colleges, each with predominantly Native American enrollment.

In 1968, Diné, Inc., an organization established by Native American political and education leaders, founded Navajo Community College, the first tribally controlled college to be created on a Native American reservation. The establishment of Navajo Community College encouraged a number of other tribes to found their own colleges, and the number of tribal colleges has steadily increased over the past 30 years. Today, there are 32 tribally controlled colleges in the United States. Generally located on or near Indian reservations, these institutions aim to preserve and communicate traditional culture, provide higher education and technical opportunities to tribal members, enhance economic opportunities within the reservation community, and promote tribal self-determination.

In 1972, the tribal colleges organized the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) to unify and strengthen the tribal college movement and to lobby for legislation and funding with the federal and state governments. The Tribally Controlled Community College Act of 1978, which provides partial funding for the tribal colleges, was one result of AIHEC's efforts.

In the fall of 1994, tribal college enrollment reached almost 12,400 students. At 23 of the 25 tribal colleges reporting enrollment data by race-ethnicity in 1994, the majority of students were Native Americans. Altogether, Native American students accounted for more than 80 percent of tribal college enrollment (10,160 students). About 8 percent of all the Native American postsecondary students in the United States were enrolled at tribal colleges.

In 1994, Navajo Community College enrolled 1,899 Native American students—more than twice as many as any other tribal college. Among all IHEs, Navajo Community College tied for second in total number of Native Americans enrolled.

In 1994, tribal colleges awarded 996 associate's degrees, 68 bachelor's degrees, and 9 master's degrees. About 77 percent of the associate's degrees, 81 percent of the bachelor's degrees, and 67 percent of the master's degrees were awarded to Native Americans.

Most tribal colleges continue to be community colleges, although some have expanded to 4-year institutions. Three tribal colleges awarded degrees at the bachelor's level or higher in 1994, and five were offering bachelor's degree programs by 1995.

A 1983 AIHEC survey found a 75 percent greater completion rate among Indian students who completed a course of study at a tribal college before going on to a 4-year degree program at a nontribal institution than among Indian students who went directly to 4-year institutions. In addition, about 85 percent of tribal college graduates who stayed on the reservation were employed. These reservations historically have had unemployment rates of 45 to 80 percent.

In 1993, tribal colleges employed a total of 781 faculty, about 237 (or 30 percent) of whom were American Indians or Alaska Natives. At four tribal colleges, more than half the full-time faculty were Native Americans. About 7 percent of all Native American faculty in the United States, and about 8 percent of full-time Native American faculty, worked at tribal colleges in 1993.

Faculty at tribal colleges earn less, on average, than faculty at public community colleges. In 1995-96, for example, the average salary for faculty at tribal colleges was 71 percent of the average salary at 2-year public institutions ($27,401 as opposed to $38,573).

¹ The terms "Native American" and "American Indian and Alaska Native" are used interchangeably throughout this article.

² The recommended precollege curriculum is the same as the core curriculum, except that it does not include 0.5 units of computer science and does include 2 units of foreign language.

³ This analysis is limited to college-bound high school graduates.

⁴ IHEs are postsecondary institutions that are accredited at the college level by an agency recognized by the U.S. Department of Education.

For an extensive bibliography, see appendices D and E of the complete report.